Society and Intelligence
Abstract
This chapter presents evidence that mechanisms relating to the cognitive unconscious: mental structures, processes, and states that can influence experience, thought, and actions outside phenomenal awareness and voluntary control make an important contribution to intelligent behavior. There have been some recent studies that look at individual differences in the cognitive unconscious. The chapter focuses on individual differences and reviews recent empirical work on relations among the cognitive processes underlying psychometric intelligence and the cognitive processes underlying the cognitive unconscious, attempting to bridge two major research programs that, until recently, have traveled on separate but parallel paths. The dual-process theory of human intelligence aims to integrate modern dual-process theories of cognition with research on intelligence. By fostering collaborations across the various areas of psychology and related disciplines, and incorporating dual-process theory into thinking, one should be able to come to a fuller, more complete understanding of human intelligence.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Human abilities are directly shaped by the material and symbolic tools available within a given context and the social institutions supporting their use.
“They are directly shaped by the material and symbolic tools available within a given context and the social institutions supporting their use (Barnett et al., 2011;Cole, 2005).”
From Human Intelligence, Creativity, and Wisdom in the Age of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2025) · cites this paper as Barnett et al., 2011
Human abilities are modifiable.
“As they are context-dependent and dynamic, human abilities are modifiable.”
From Human Intelligence, Creativity, and Wisdom in the Age of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2025) · cites this paper as Barnett et al., 2011
The dynamic development of human abilities results from their context-dependent and distributed nature, particularly from the interaction between the individual and symbolic tools and social institutions.
“The dynamic development of human abilities results from their context-dependent and distributed nature, particularly from the interaction between the individual and the symbolic tools and social institutions, such as schools, which amplify or weaken these capacities (Barnett et al., 2011;Cole, 2005;Flynn, 2011;Nickerson, 2005).”
From Human Intelligence, Creativity, and Wisdom in the Age of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2025) · cites this paper as Barnett et al., 2011
Cites
Spence, M. (1973) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.2307/1882010 · Cited by 17,814 · see citing works
The weirdest people in the world?
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0999152x · Cited by 12,641 · see citing works
WEIRD languages have misled us, too
Majid, A., & Levinson, S. C. (2010) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x1000018x · Cited by 4,169 · see citing works
Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-3435 · Cited by 4,103 · see citing works
Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns.
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R. J., et al. (1996) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77 · Cited by 2,913 · see citing works
Self-citationHandbook of The Economics of Education
(2011) · Handbook of the economics of education · doi:10.1016/c2009-0-19772-6 · Cited by 2,590 · see citing works
Does Compulsory School Attendance Affect Schooling and Earnings?
Angrist, J. D., & Krueger, A. B. (1991) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.2307/2937954 · Cited by 2,565 · see citing works
The Role of Cognitive Skills in Economic Development
Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2008) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/jel.46.3.607 · Cited by 2,541 · see citing works
Intellectual Impairment in Children with Blood Lead Concentrations below 10 μg per Deciliter
Canfield, R. L., Henderson, C. R., Cory-Slechta, D. A., Cox, C., Jusko, T. A., & Lanphear, B. P. (2003) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa022848 · Cited by 2,081 · see citing works
When and where do we apply what we learn?: A taxonomy for far transfer
Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612 · Cited by 2,076 · see citing works
Self-citationReturns to investment in education: a further update
Psacharopoulos, G., & Patrinos, H. A. (2004) · Education Economics · doi:10.1080/0964529042000239140 · Cited by 2,054 · see citing works
Bruner, J. S., Olver, R. R., & Greenfield, P. M. (1966) · Cited by 2,002 · see citing works
Health nutrition and economic development.
Strauss, J. A., & Thomas, D. (1995) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 1,779 · see citing works
The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
(2002) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.39-5154 · Cited by 1,358 · see citing works
General Mental Ability in the World of Work: Occupational Attainment and Job Performance.
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.162 · Cited by 1,238 · see citing works
Measurement of Intelligence by Drawings
Gould, M. C., & Goodenough, F. L. (1928) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1414371 · Cited by 1,204 · see citing works
The Growing Importance of Cognitive Skills in Wage Determination
Murnane, R. J., Willett, J. B., & Levy, F. (1995) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.2307/2109863 · Cited by 1,185 · see citing works
Mullis, I. V. S., Martín, M. O., Gonzalez, E. J., & Chrostowski, S. J. (2004) · Cited by 1,100 · see citing works
Intelligence: Its Structure, Growth and Action
(1986) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)x6006-6 · Cited by 1,093 · see citing works
World Expansion of Mass Education, 1870-1980
Meyer, J. W., Ramírez, F. O., & Soysal, Y. N. (1992) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.2307/2112679 · Cited by 1,028 · see citing works
Clark, G. (2007) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781400827817 · Cited by 928 · see citing works
Ceci, S. J. (1991) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.27.5.703 · Cited by 837 · see citing works
Self-citationMelhuish, E. C., Phan, M. B., Sylva, Κ., Sammons, P., Siraj, I., & Taggart, B. (2008) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00550.x · Cited by 788 · see citing works
Why does democracy need education?
Glaeser, E. L., Ponzetto, G. A. M., & Shleifer, A. (2007) · Journal of Economic Growth · doi:10.1007/s10887-007-9015-1 · Cited by 690 · see citing works
Intelligence Predicts Health and Longevity, but Why?
Gottfredson, L. S., & Deary, I. J. (2004) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01301001.x · Cited by 623 · see citing works
The Productivity Argument for Investing in Young Children
Heckman, J. J., & Masterov, D. V. (2007) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w13016 · Cited by 603 · see citing works
What Is Intelligence?: Beyond the Flynn Effect
Flynn, J. R. (2007) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511605253 · Cited by 590 · see citing works
Sternberg, R. J. (2004) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.59.5.325 · Cited by 555 · see citing works
Children's Drawings as Measures of Intellectual Maturity
Rouse, M. J., & Harris, D. B. (1964) · Studies in Art Education · doi:10.2307/1319660 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Schooling, intelligence, and income.
Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.10.1051 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
Self-citation(2006) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Rindermann, H. (2007) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.634 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effect of schooling and ability on achievement test scores
Hansen, K. T., Heckman, J. J., & Mullen, K. J. (2004) · Journal of Econometrics · doi:10.1016/j.jeconom.2003.10.011 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Intelligence, Heredity and Environment
(1996) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139174282 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Human Accomplishment: The Pursuit of Excellence in the Arts and Sciences, 800 B.C. to 1950
Murray, C. A. (2003) · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Inductive Reasoning: A Training Approach
Klauer, K. J., & Phye, G. D. (2008) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654307313402 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Lynn, R., & Vanhanen, T. (2002) · Praeger eBooks · doi:10.5040/9798400672408 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Age versus Schooling Effects on Intelligence Development
Cahan, S., & Cohen, N. (1989) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130797 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Levels, M., Dronkers, J., & Kraaykamp, G. (2008) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240807300507 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Glewwe, P. W. (1996) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/s0304-3878(96)00415-4 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Political Interest, Cognitive Ability and Personality: Determinants of Voter Turnout in Britain
Denny, K., & Doyle, O. (2008) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s000712340800015x · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Intelligence and how to get it: Why schools and cultures count.
Nisbett, R. (2009) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.46-7095 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Sackett, P. R., Kuncel, N. R., Arneson, J. J., Cooper, S. R., & Waters, S. D. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0013978 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Jones, G., & Schneider, W. J. (2006) · Journal of Economic Growth · doi:10.1007/s10887-006-7407-2 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
The Impact of Intelligence and Institutional Improvements on Economic Growth
Weede, E., & Kämpf, S. (2002) · Kyklos · doi:10.1111/1467-6435.00191 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
THE RETURNS TO ENDOGENOUS HUMAN CAPITAL IN PAKISTAN'S RURAL WAGE LABOUR MARKET
Alderman, H., Behrman, J. R., Ross, D. R., & Sabot, R. H. (1996) · Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0084.1996.mp58001003.x · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Relevance of education and intelligence at the national level for the economic welfare of people
Rindermann, H. (2008) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.02.002 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Self-citationFrom Farmers to Merchants, Conversions and Diaspora: Human Capital and Jewish History
Botticini, M., & Eckstein, Z. (2007) · Journal of the European Economic Association · doi:10.1162/jeea.2007.5.5.885 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Bright Children Become Enlightened Adults
Deary, I. J., Batty, G. D., & Galé, C. R. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02036.x · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Early care and education for children in poverty: promises, programs, and long-term results
(1998) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.35-6364 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Ceci, S. J. (1996) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/9780674029316 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Self-citationEstimating state IQ: Measurement challenges and preliminary correlates
McDaniel, M. A. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.007 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Wicherts, J., & Dolan, C. (2010) · Educational Measurement Issues and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.2010.00182.x · Cited by 128 · see citing works
A systematic literature review of the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans
Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2010) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.05.002 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
What has caused the Flynn effect? Secular increases in the development quotients of infants
Lynn, R. (2009) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.07.008 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Classroom Intellectual Composition and Academic Achievement
Dar, Y., & Resh, N. (1986) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1163053 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Educational and ecological correlates of IQ: A cross-national investigation
Barber, N. (2005) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2005.01.001 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., Carlson, J. S., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2010) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.12.001 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Rindermann, H. (2007) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.09.003 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citationEducational Policy and Country Outcomes in International Cognitive Competence Studies
Rindermann, H., & Ceci, S. J. (2009) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01165.x · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citationRoutes of success: influences on the occupational attainment of young British males
Bond, R., & Saunders, P. T. (1999) · British Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.1999.00217.x · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Rindermann, H., Sailer, M., & Thompson, J. (2009) · Journal of Talent Development and Excellence · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationStelzl, I., Merz, F., Ehlers, T., & Remer, H. (1995) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(95)90018-7 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
National IQ and economic outcomes
Meisenberg, G. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.022 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Shayer, M., & Ginsburg, D. (2008) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/978185408x383123 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
The intelligence–religiosity nexus: A representative study of white adolescent Americans
Nyborg, H. (2008) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.08.003 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
National differences in intelligence, crime, income, and skin color
Rushton, J. P., & Templer, D. I. (2009) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.04.003 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Are cognitive differences between immigrant and majority groups diminishing?
Nijenhuis, J. T., de Jong, M., Evers, A., & van der Flier, H. (2004) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.511 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Johnson, W., Bouchard, T. J., McGue, M. K., Segal, N. L., Tellegen, A., Keyes, M. A., & Gottesman, I. I. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.10.003 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Kanazawa, S. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.04.003 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Mullis, I. V. S., Martín, M. O., & Foy, P. (2005) · Cited by 65 · see citing works
What Makes Nations Intelligent?
Hunt, E. B. (2012) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691612442905 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Considerations Relating to the Study of Group Differences in Intelligence
Hunt, E., & Carlson, J. (2007) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00037.x · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Real education: four simple truths for bringing America's schools back to reality
(2009) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.46-5164 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Talent, Character, and the Dimensions of National Culture
Meisenberg, G. (2004) · Mankind Quarterly · doi:10.46469/mq.2004.45.2.1 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Whetzel, D. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.003 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Should scientists study race and IQ? YES: The scientific truth must be pursued
Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/457788a · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationRelevance of education and intelligence at the national level for health: The case of HIV and AIDS
Rindermann, H., & Meisenberg, G. (2009) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.03.005 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationNational Intelligence and the Emperor's New Clothes
Barnett, S. M., & Williams, W. M. (2004) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/004367 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationRecent growth of children in the two Koreas: A meta-analysis
Schwekendiek, D. J., & Pak, S. (2009) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2009.01.001 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans: Comments on Wicherts, Dolan, and van der Maas
Lynn, R., & Meisenberg, G. (2009) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.09.009 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2009) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.11.003 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Crime, Delinquency and Intelligence
Ellis, L., & Walsh, A. (2003) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-008043793-4/50054-4 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Distinguishing Centri-Cultural from Cross-Cultural Tests and Research
Wober, M. (1969) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1969.28.2.488 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Another failure to replicate Lynn's estimate of the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans
Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., Carlson, J. S., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2010) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.03.010 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Rushton, J. P., Bons, T. A., Vernon, P. A., & Čvorović, J. (2007) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0461 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
European and American WAIS III Norms: Cross-National Differences in Performance Subtest Scores.
Roivainen, E. (2010) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.10.001 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
National IQ and Economic Development: A Study of Eighty-One Nations
Lynn, R., & Vanhanen, T. (2001) · Mankind Quarterly · doi:10.46469/mq.2001.41.4.3 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Evolution, brain size, and the national IQ of peoples around 3000 years B.C
Wicherts, J. M., Borsboom, D., & Dolan, C. V. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.08.020 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
National IQs updated for 41 Nations
Lynn, R. (2010) · Mankind Quarterly · doi:10.46469/mq.2010.50.4.1 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Charlton, B. G. (2009) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2009.04.011 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Educational attainment and HIV/AIDS prevalence: A cross-country study
Lakhanpal, M. R., & Ram, R. (2006) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2006.09.003 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Oesterdiekhoff, G. W. (2008) · University of Zagreb University Computing Centre (SRCE) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
IQ-Income Data Do Not Prove Poor Countries Must Remain Poor
Barnett, S. M., & Williams, W. M. (2005) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/041317 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 95 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
Sternberg, R. J. (2012) · Handbook of Psychology, Second Edition · doi:10.1002/9781118133880.hop207002 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Human Intelligence, Creativity, and Wisdom in the Age of Generative Artificial Intelligence
Preiss, D. D., & Sternberg, R. J. (2025) · Creativity. Theories – Research - Applications · doi:10.2478/ctra-2025-0012 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“They are directly shaped by the material and symbolic tools available within a given context and the social institutions supporting their use (Barnett et al., 2011; Cole, 2005).”
Sinha, C., & Mishra, A. K. (2014) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Barnett, S. M., Rindermann, H., Williams, W. M., & Ceci, S. J.
- Venue
- The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 2011-05-30
- Pages
- 666-682
- OpenAlex
- W1906495424
- Cited by
- 3
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2014: 1 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 2.69
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- cognitive unconscious, psychometric intelligence, individual differences, dual-process theory, implicit cognition, intelligent behavior
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
