“Attention,”

“Similar to the benefits of noticing linguistic structures (Schmidt, 1990, 1994, 2001), noticing culture can have a significant impact on students ’ cultural awareness (Ducate & Lomicka, 2016).”

“…corpus consultation task aimed to raise the direct-approach group’s awareness of the pervasiveness of the target hedges, provide opportunities for them to notice salient features of hedging (Schmidt, 2001), and facilitate their pattern induction in authentic language use (Boulton & Cobb, 2017).”

“Schmidt (1994; 2001) argued that acquisition cannot take place unless learners actually ‘notice’ linguistic forms in the input - a process that he suggests is necessarily conscious.”

“‘‘. . . SLA is largely driven by what learners pay attention to and notice in target language input’’ (Schmidt, 2001, pp. 3–4), and noticing entails not only detection but also rehearsal in short term memory (Robinson, 1995).”

“In the noticing hypothesis (Schmidt 1990, 1993, 1995, 2001), attention to the pragmalinguistic or sociopragmatic information to be acquired is the necessary condition for pragmatic learning to occur.”

“It is believed to be an important, if not crucial, condition for second language acquisition (Schmidt 1990, 1993, 1995, 2001; Schmidt & Frota, 1986).”

“While learners’ pragmatic learning is often analyzed at a cognitive level (e.g., noticing and understanding, Bialystok 1993; Schmidt 1993, 2001), pragmatic competence has also been conceptualized in a broader social context in relation to learners’ subjectivity.”

“Keywords: attention; eye tracking; second language vocabulary acquisition; spacing effect; study-phase retrieval It is widely believed that attention plays an important role in second language (L2) learning (Gass, 1988; Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 1990, 2001).”

“SLA researchers have been primarily concerned with highly focused WCF in relation to theoretical claims about the importance of, as Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 April 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 660564 Schmidt suggests, “attention” and “understanding” (Schmidt, 2001).”

“However, Schmidt (2001, 2010) further underlines the distinction between ‘noticing’, the conscious detection of a stimulus, and ‘understanding’, the recognition of a general principle, rule or pattern.”

“An instantiation par excellence of the strong-interface position is the Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt 1990; 1995; 2001).”

“Any research that attempts to investigate this question needs to be theoretically grounded, and the attentional framework (Robinson, 1995; Schmidt, 1990, 1993, 1995, 2001) offers a solid framework to investigate MALL-enhanced input processing tasks.”

“Instructed SLA research has shown that noticing and attention are essential to learning (Schmidt, 1990, 1995, 2001) and can be enhanced through various instructional techniques, such as processing instruction (VanPatten, 2002), input enhancement (Sharwood Smith, 1993), or FonF (Doughty & Williams,…”

“…better understanding of how they are organized and lead to a rethinking in social terms of correction and explanation practices as well as noticing (Schmidt, 1990, 2001): Corrections and explanations only work when oriented and agreed to as such by the L2 user through her initiations and uptakes,…”

“…with the stability of both productive and receptive gains for the clitic form found also in the Writing condition, as form incorporation has been associated with more elaborate input processing as well as syntacticization and long-term development of L2 forms (e.g., Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 2001).”

“In regard to theoretical perspectives, most if not all approaches to second language (L2) acquisition posit some role for attention whether it be attention at the level of noticing (Schmidt, 2001 ) or attention at the level of detection (Tomlin & Villa, 1994 ).”

“…to be consciously aware of certain linguistic forms in order to learn them is a contentious issue in the field of SLA, many researchers believe that learning cannot occur without some degree of attention to form or noticing (Schmidt, 2001; Doughty, 2003; Robinson, 2003; Leow, 2015; Ellis, 2016b).”

“Levels of learner awareness were defined in consonance with the noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990, 1993, 2001).”

“All of these activities work together to facilitate learning (Schmidt 2001).”

“Other publications looked at specific theories like the output hypothesis (Swain, 1995), communicative competence (Swain, 1985) and the cognitive processes in language learning (Schmidt, 1994, 2001; Miyake and Friedman, 1998; Doughty, 2001).”

“The importance of consciousness-raising tasks which draw students’ attention to particular linguistic features of the L2 and facilitate a conscious ‘noticing’ of language on the part of the learner has been emphasised in this regard (Swain 1998; Schmidt 2001; Doughty 2003; Robinson 2003).”

“…Schmidt’s ( 1990 , 1993 ) noticing hypothesis, “since many features of L2 input are likely to be infrequent, non-salient, and communicatively redundant, intentionally focused attention may be a practical (though not theoretical) necessity for successful language learning” (Schmidt, 2001 , p. 23).”

“Therefore, given that learners are required to attend to L2 forms to facilitate comprehensible input (Schmidt, 2001), the variable of frequency in video viewing requires further research.”

“…1997; Long, 2007; Pica, 1994) claim that these types of interactional modifications make L2 input more comprehensible and thereafter accessible for L2 learners, which in turn helps them notice and understand linguistic information within the L2 input more effectively (see also Schmidt, 2001).”

“It seems to me, however, unlikely that the benefits of ‘noticing’ on acquisition (Schmidt 1990, 2001) are limited purely to lexicogrammatical features of the language, and a number of recent studies provide support for a CA pedagogical approach in this regard (Huth & Taleghani-Nikazm 2006;…”

“This hypothesis is consonant with foundational theories in SLA, which stress that attention is central to successful L2 acquisition (e.g. Gass, Spinner, and Behney 2017; Schmidt 2001; Tomlin and Vila 1994).”

“He emphasises a crucial role of attention in SLA stating that ‘attention appears necessary for understanding nearly every aspect of second language and foreign language learning’ (Schmidt, 2001, p. 6).”

“Learners attend to the output of peers and notice gaps between the output and their pre-existing knowledge (Schmidt, 2001) so as to reflect and restructure their knowledge (Tocalli-Beller & Swain, 2005).”

“With an attempt to explore the effects of task features on language learning and development, Robinson, based on information processing theories (Schmidt, 2001), put forward his Cognition Hypothesis (Robinson, 2001a, 2001b, 2005), which postulates that learners focus on multiple aspects of…”

“According to Schmidt (2001), conscious noticing of language forms is necessary for learning to take place.”

“…formmeaning mapping of new words or structures in the text – either implicitly (Ellis, 2012), or more explicitly through consciously noticing them (Schmidt, 2001).8 The research by Mitterer and McQueen (2009), Charles and Trenkic (2015) and Trenkic (2016) also suggests the value of captioned…”

“…M atthew K anw it hand, less proficient learners require greater attentional resources in linking form to meaning, which indicates that they are unlikely to capture the meaning of all forms presented in the input and that more nuanced meanings may not be gleaned (Ellis, 2005; Schmidt, 2001).”

“This kind of processing corresponds to what Schmidt (1993, 2001) termed understanding (i.e., recognizing underlying pragmatic rules), which represents a deeper level of processing than noticing.”

“Instruction needs to function as a trigger, or a “hook” of sorts, for subsequent noticing of idioms (selective attention) in the language input (Schmidt, 2001; Stickels & Schwartz, 1987).”

“Thus, in such studies all that participants who were subsequently classified as unaware were not aware of was the hidden regularity connecting forms to meanings that falls under what Schmidt (2001) termed “awareness at the level of understanding.””

“In L2, however, many researchers have proposed that learners need to pay attention to an unknown word if they are going to learn it successfully (e.g., Ellis 1994; Paribakht and Wesche 1999; Schmidt 1990, 1995, 2001).”

“…is that it is crucial to assist learners to channel their attention to the target language (TL) form–meaning constructions while reading for meaning comprehension (Godfroid & Uggen, 2013; Robinson, 1995; Robinson, Mackey, Gass, & Schmidt, 2012; Schmidt, 1990, 1995, 2001; Tomlin & Villa, 1994).”