“Attention,”

“On this basis, learners first need to notice or pay attention to the grammatical rule or form during the interactional process (Schmidt 1990, 1993, 2001).”

“There are many situations in natural language in which cues are redundant (Schmidt, 2001 ; Terrell, 1991 ; VanPatten, 1996 ) and thus—as a consequence of blocking—might be less readily learned.”

“In keeping with Sharwood-Smith (1993) and Schmidt (2001), among others, we consider this contribution to gradual entrenchment to be mediated by attentional processes – that is, ‘noticed’ instances of a given word combination will make a greater contribution than unnoticed ones.”

“They cite Schmidt ’ s N OTICING H YPOTHESIS (Schmidt, 1990, 2001; Lai & Zhao, 2006); the USAGE - BASED (UB) MODEL (Ellis, 2002; Tomasello, 2003); input enhancement (Chapelle, 2003; Wong, 2005); INVOLVEMENT LOAD HYPOTHESIS (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001) as supporting the DDL approach.”

“Attention and noticing (Schmidt, 2001), and corrective feedback (Ellis, 2007) have also been the focus of SLA, but none of this work has led to defining and empirically operationalising type of instruction to the point that different classroom options can be evaluated for their contribution to…”

“In terms of theory, the COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT HYPOTHESIS (Krashen 1985) was still very influential and captioned TV appeared to offer ideal comprehensible input.”

“Compared to the plain text in full-captioned video, highlighted keywords were more salient and thus more likely to be noticed and enter into subsequent processing (Ellis, 2016; Schmidt, 2001).”

“There are many situations in natural language where cues are redundant (Schmidt, 2001 ; Terrell, 1991 ; VanPatten, 1996 ) and thus, as a consequence of blocking, might be less readily learned.”

“…is a hotly debated topic as reflected in research on the input-intake distinction, attention, noticing, and issues in both interactionist and emergentist accounts of acquisition (e.g., Carroll, 2001; Ellis & Larsen-Freeman, 2006; Gass & Mackey, 2006; Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 2001; Truscott, 1998).”

“Theoretically, the effectiveness of form-focused instruction in general and wordfocused activities in particular can be explained in terms of ‘noticing’, (Schmidt, 2001), elaboration (Baddeley, 1997), and ‘involvement’ (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001).”

“Some studies report that learners cannot learn learning objectives without consciousness of these objectives in second language learning (Schmidt, 1990, 2001).”

“Balancing in-class and out-of-class learning may be challenging but can be achieved by teachers regularly scheduling reflective scenarios to engineer “noticing” of language (Schmidt 2001) from captured mobile data being brought back into the classroom.”

“Noticing is argued as being a necessary step prior to acquisition taking place (Schmidt, 2001).”

“…point, he seemed to say that the NH requires only “that learners become aware of sounds, words (recognizable sequences of sounds associated with meaning) and sequences of words,” grammar being a matter of implicit versus explicit learning rather than attention or noticing (Schmidt, 2001 , p. 31).”

“In fact, Schmidt (2001) argued that task instructions along with other task variables may promote learners’ attention to and noticing of a form.”

“Theoretically, feedback on language errors has been linked to processes of noticing and attention to form, both of which are considered crucial for L2 acquisition (Doughty & Williams, 1998 ; Norris & Ortega, 2000 ; Schmidt, 1990 , 1994 , 2001 ).”

“…teaching step, which is the next step of the knowledge scaffolding and constructing process, utilizes the theory of Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 1995, 2001) to help to raise learners’ language awareness and intercultural awareness and adjust their intercultural attitudes by exposing…”

“According to Tomlin and Villa (1994), alertness is important in a situation of second language acquisition, because it reflects motivation, interest in the L2 and readiness to learn in the classroom (Schmidt, 2001).”

“…scholars argue that EI, which involves giving learners information about the target language structure during the learning process (DeKeyser, 1995), facilitates second language acquisition (SLA), suggesting that it promotes noticing (Schmidt, 1990, 1995, 2001) and subsequent intake of target forms.”

“Grammatical morphemes often appear in redundant contexts where their interpretation is not essential for correct interpretation of the sentence (Terrell, 1991; Van Patten, 1996; Schmidt, 2001).”

“That is, CF gives an opportunity for learners to make a cognitive comparison between the input and their interlanguage (N. Ellis, 2005; R. Ellis, 1994), an argument that noticing is necessary and only the features noticed will lead to intake and hence language acquisition (Schmidt, 1994, 2001).”

“Because of these criticisms, in 2001, Schmidt ( 2001 ) proposed a weaker version of the noticing hypothesis.”

“Tied to this notion of attention is the concept of awareness in such a way that these concepts are said to be interconnected (Schmidt, 2001).”

“…beneficial for L2 acquisition because it (a) focuses learner attention on linguistic elements that are needed to complete the task and (b) helps learners notice gaps between their L2 knowledge and more target-like language forms (Robinson, 1995; Schmidt, 1990, 1995, 2001; Tomlin & Villa, 1994).”

“Yet, attention is vital for learning (Schmidt, 2001).”

“…input and intake (e.g., Schmidt, 1990), the role of attention and noticing (e.g., Gass, Svetics, & Lemelin, 2003; Izumi, 2002; Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 2001; Wong, 2001), differences between explicit vs. implicit learning, and declarative vs. procedural knowledge (e.g., Anderson, 1976;…”

“The noticing hypothesis posits that attention and noticing are necessary correlates for input to become intake (Schmidt, 2001).”

“Additionally, receiving EI seems to yield higher levels of TL awareness, which is associated with more successful learning (Leow, 2015; Schmidt, 2001).”

“…the role of awareness in L2 acquisition and the possibility of learning without awareness (e.g., Hama & Leow, 2010; Leow, 1997, 2000; Leow & Hama, 2013; Leung & Williams, 2011; Rebuschat, Hamrick, Sachs, Riestenberg, & Ziegler, this issue; Schmidt, 1990, 1995a, 1995b, 2001; Williams, 2005, 2009).”

“This interpretation of the results points to (a) the limited and selective nature of attentional capacity (Schmidt, 2001; Styles, 1997).”

“Repeated encounters with target words may help learners attend to and notice linguistic features of input (Schmidt 2001).”

“Finally, the noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 1995, 2001) argues that L2 learning is primarily a conscious process.”

“…for learning to take place (e.g., Ellis, 2005 ; Ellis et al., 2009 ; Leow & Bowles, 2005 ; Robinson, 1995b , 1996 ; Robinson & Gilabert, 2007 ; Schmidt, 1990 , 1992 , 1995 , 2001 ) and (b) the ways in which externally imposed learning contexts or pedagogical conditions—such as the degree of…”

“Making learners aware of the differences is an important responsibility of the teacher, because once learners become aware of the characteristics of unscripted spoken texts they can attend to and notice these characteristics in subsequent input (McCarthy & Carter, 1995; Schmidt, 1990, 2001).”

“This cognitive comparison is argued to facilitate noticing which is necessary for L2 learning (Schmidt, 2001) as well as promote form-function connections necessary for interlanguage restructuring.”

“This is not only consistent with general theories in which attention is considered a prerequisite for learning (Schmidt, 2001), but it has also been empirically established by experiments where learners ’ eye movements during reading were recorded and where the number and duration of fi xations on…”

“See, for example, Krashen (1981, 1985), Long (1996), Schmidt (1990, 2001) and Swain (1985).”

“According to Sheen (2010), considerable support for oral CF comes from several SLA theories such as the interaction hypothesis (Long, 1996), the output 182 Junqueira and Kim”

“Moreover, CS use is closely connected with language acquisition in terms of second language acquisition (SLA) theories that emphasize the role of input, output, feedback, and cognitive processing (Kasper & Kellerman, 1997, p. 7).”

“Most SLA theorists nowadays agree that noticing is a crucial event in language error correction and learning (Schmidt, 2001).”

“As asserted by Flowerdew (2015), exposure to authentic language use through corpus activities that promote language awareness align with and support the noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 2001).”

“…Implicit knowledge of L2 morphology factor to whether particular linguistic structures are noticed in the input (e.g., Ellis, 2006a; Peters, 1985; Schmidt, 2001; Slobin, 1985), it follows that attaching the morphological marker to the end of the English word could have increased the salience of…”

“Thus, before we can assess the infl uence of attention and processing on L2 learning, we need to ascertain that learners actually attend to and notice (Schmidt, 1990 , 1995 , 2001 ) those elements in the language input that will help them to acquire the target form.”

“Schmidt (1990, 1993, 2001) and Kasper and Schmidt (1996) maintain that in order for input to become intake, both L2 linguistic forms and contextual factors must be ‘noticed’.”

“I am grateful to my dissertation director, Ron Leow, and to committee members Cristina Sanz and RuSan Chen for their constant guidance and support throughout this project+ Also, thanks to Jorge López Cortina for his help with data collection and to Maite Camblor-Portilla for her help with transcription, scoring, and c…”

“Although it is accepted that attention and awareness play important roles in learning (see Leow & Bowles, 2005 ; Schmidt, 2001 , for reviews), the early notion that low levels of awareness of linguistic phenomena are necessary for their acquisition (e.g., Schmidt, 1990 ) has recently been…”

“According to the IH (Long, 1981 , 1996 ), conversational interaction facilitates language acquisition by triggering useful cognitive processes for L2 learning, such as noticing (Schmidt, 2001 ).”

“The design of the System conforms to the notions of frequent comprehensible input (Krashen, 1985) and noticing (Schmidt, 1990, 2001) in second language acquisition theories, and ease of use for technology-supported learning (Davis, 1989).”

“…& Tulving, 1975 ), or if the general context is easily understood, then new words may be processed more superfi cially and may be less likely to be retrieved from memory (e.g., Ellis, 1994 , 2001 ; Gass, 1999 ; Hulstijn, 2001 , 2003 ; Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001 ; Robinson, 2003 ; Schmidt, 2001 ).”

“Some of the theoretical models that underlie the WhatsApp research are the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978), repair moves or negotiation for meaning (Smith, 2003), noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 2001), and collaborative learning.”

“…theories that hold initial encoding is enhanced by preparatory attention and voluntary orienting (Cowan, 1997; N. C. Ellis, 2005; LaBerge, 1995; Schmidt, 2001); and once a construction has been seeded in this way, with the form-meaning conjunction consolidated as an explicit memory, thereafter…”

“The PPP approach may effectively direct learners’ attention because “people learn about the things that they attend to and do not learnmuch about the things they do not attend to” (Schmidt, 2001, p. 30).”

“Furthermore, the coding of noticing data needs to be carefully considered and decisions as to the resulting coarse (Swain & Lapkin, 1995) or finely grained (Schmidt, 1995, 2001) coding system need to be made.”

“…on the length of fixation of words that are fixated because fixations provide positive evidence of focal attention and, potentially, noticing in the technical sense of Schmidt (2001) (for further discussion of peripheral, selective, and focal attention in eye-tracking research, see Godfroid, 2019).”