Fostering School Belonging in Secondary Schools Using a Socio-Ecological Framework

Allen, Kelly-Ann; Vella-Brodrick, Dianne; Waters, Lea

doi:10.1017/edp.2016.5

Cited by 212Early Childhood Education and DevelopmentYouth Development and Social SupportSchool Health and Nursing Education

Fostering School Belonging in Secondary Schools Using a Socio-Ecological Framework

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Allen, Kelly-Ann, Vella-Brodrick, Dianne, Waters, Lea·2016·Educational and Developmental Psychologist

DOI 10.1017/edp.2016.5

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Abstract

The benefits of belonging and feeling connected to school for adolescent mental health and wellbeing are well documented, but how belonging is fostered is less understood. The present article puts forward a new conceptual framework of school belonging based on Bronfenbrenner's (1979) sociological model of human development, using evidence from a range of previous peer-reviewed studies to better understand the factors that occur across five levels that affect a students’ sense of school belonging (i.e., the individual level, the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem). The conceptual framework is used to present a range of evidence-based school belonging strategies (some with examples) that schools can use to enhance student belonging. This article makes an original contribution to the field of psychological and educational research by presenting a socio-ecological framework to explore the themes that influence school belonging within a secondary school system. It broadens the frame of reference of school belonging beyond the individual student to consider features of the broader school system and environment.

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The protective quality of relationships can be measured by the support provided within social networks.
“The protective quality of relationships-in terms of their impact on positive outcomes such as school belonging and/or mental health-can be measured by the support provided within social networks”
From “So That You Can Feel Well”: Perspectives of Students with Social, Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties on Factors that Support School Attendance (2025) · cites this paper as Allen et al., 2016

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Interrelationships between Coping, School Connectedness and Wellbeing Erica Frydenberg
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Perceived instructor affective support in relation to academic emotions and motivation in college
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Do Social Connections and Hope Matter in Predicting Early Adolescent Violence?
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School Contexts and Student Belonging: A Mixed Methods Study of an Innovative High School
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My School? Critiquing the abstraction and quantification of Education
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Adolescent Emotional Distress: The Role of Family Obligations and School Connectedness
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Australian adolescents' extracurricular activity participation and positive development: is the relationship mediated by peer attributes?
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The Importance of Adult Connections in Adolescents' Sense of School Belonging: Implications for Schools and Practitioners
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Positive Development, Sense of Belonging, and Support of Peers among Early Adolescents: Perspectives of Different Actors
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Promoting connectedness through whole‐school approaches
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Subdimensions of Adolescent Belonging in High School
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Bridging the Research-Practice Gap: Research Translation and/or Research Transformation
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Aerobic Dance and Physical Self-Perceptions in Female Adolescents: Some Implications for Physical Education
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The Influence of Families on Early Adolescent School Connectedness: Evidence That This Association Varies with Adolescent Involvement in Peer Drinking Networks
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Sense of Belonging in Secondary Schools: A Survey of LGB and Heterosexual Students in Flanders
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SENSE OF SCHOOL BELONGING AMONG ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
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Evidence-Based Practice: Myths and Realities
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Student perceptions of classroom achievement goals as predictors of belonging and content instrumentality
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Best Practices, Best Thinking, and Emerging Issues in School Leadership
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Bullying solutions : evidence-based approaches to bullying in Australian schools
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A Developmental Approach to the Prevention of Adolescent's Aggressive Behavior and the Promotion of Resilience
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Investigating the Academic and Social Benefits of Extended New Student Orientations for First-Year Students
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Sorted by citations

What Schools Need to Know About Fostering School Belonging: a Meta-analysis
Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Vella-Brodrick, D., Hattie, J., & Waters, L. (2018) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-016-9389-8 · Cited by 1,141 · see citing works
“Exo, Macro and Chrono Level Factors Research on school belonging has focused primarily on individual and interpersonal factors, but broader aspects of the culture and period in time impact decisions and experiences at lower levels (Allen et al. 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Belonging: a review of conceptual issues, an integrative framework, and directions for future research
Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Rozek, C. S., McInerney, D. M., & Slavich, G. M. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1883409 · Cited by 1,052 · see citing works
“Definitions of belonging have tended to include school-based experiences, relationships with peers and teachers, and students’ emotional connection with or feelings toward their school (Allen & Bowles, 2012; Allen et al., 2018, 2016; O’Brien & Bowles, 2013; Slaten et al., 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior
Slavich, G. M. (2020) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045159 · Cited by 502 · see citing works
The Need to Belong: a Deep Dive into the Origins, Implications, and Future of a Foundational Construct
Allen, K., Gray, D. L., Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09633-6 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Self-citation
How the Bronfenbrenner Bio-ecological System Theory Explains the Development of Students’ Sense of Belonging to School?
El Zaatari, W., & Maalouf, I. (2022) · Sage Open · doi:10.1177/21582440221134089 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“For instance, Allen et al. (2016) have applied the socio-ecological framework of Bronfenbrenner’s theory and considered several features of the broader school system and environment to explore the themes that could influence school belonging.”
Background
Loneliness, college belongingness, subjective vitality, and psychological adjustment during coronavirus pandemic: Development of the College Belongingness Questionnaire
Arslan, G. (2021) · Journal of Positive School Psychology · doi:10.47602/jpsp.v5i1.240 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“School settings especially provide unique multisystemic opportunities for youths and young adults to bond (Allen et al., 2016; Arslan et al., 2020).”
Background
Social Safety Theory: Conceptual foundation, underlying mechanisms, and future directions
Slavich, G. M., Roos, L. G., Mengelkoch, S., Webb, C. A., Shattuck, E. C., Moriarity, D. P., & Alley, J. C. (2023) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2023.2171900 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Exploring the Impacts of School Belonging on Youth Wellbeing and Mental Health among Turkish Adolescents
Arslan, G., Allen, K., & Ryan, T. (2020) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-020-09721-z · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Self-citation
School Belonging: The Importance of Student and Teacher Relationships
Allen, K.-A., Slaten, C. D., Arslan, G., Roffey, S., Craig, H., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2021) · The Palgrave Handbook of Positive Education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-64537-3_21 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Self-citation
School Bullying, Mental Health, and Wellbeing in Adolescents: Mediating Impact of Positive Psychological Orientations
Arslan, G., Allen, K., & Tanhan, A. (2020) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-020-09780-2 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Self-citation
School-based programs for Supporting the mental health and psychosocial wellbeing of adolescent forced migrants in high-income countries: A scoping review
Bennouna, C., Khauli, N., Basir, M., Allaf, C., Wessells, M., & Stark, L. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112558 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Adolescent School Belonging and Mental Health Outcomes in Young Adulthood: Findings from a Multi-wave Prospective Cohort Study
Allen, K., Greenwood, C. J., Berger, E., Patlamazoglou, L., Reupert, A., Wurf, G., May, F., O’Connor, M., Sanson, A. V., Olsson, C. A., et al. (2024) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-023-09626-6 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“…emotional aspects (i.e. general feelings about school, quality of relationships, feelings of inclusion/being respected, identity, perceived usefulness of the school/curriculum and self-efficacy/confidence) which are integral to belonging (Allen et al., 2016; Allen et al., 2018a, b, 2021a, b, c).”
Self-citation
School Bullying and Youth Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors: Do School Belonging and School Achievement Matter?
Arslan, G. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00526-x · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Understanding the Priorities of Australian Secondary Schools Through an Analysis of Their Mission and Vision Statements
Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Vella‐Brodrick, D., & Waters, L. E. (2018) · Educational Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0013161x18758655 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“…whose parents are actively involved in their school have better outcomes in respect to prosocial behavior, well-being, and school belonging (Allen et al., 2016; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009; Nutbrown & Clough, 2009; O’Rourke & Cooper, 2010; “Wingspread Declaration on…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Introducing a dual continuum model of belonging and loneliness
Lim, M. H., Allen, K., Furlong, M. J., Craig, H., & Smith, D. C. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1883411 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“A socioecological framework (Allen et al., 2016) of school belonging based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) sociological model of human development has also been proposed.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Parental Support, Peer Support and School Connectedness as Foundations for Student Engagement and Academic Achievement in Australian Youth
Bradley, G. L., Ferguson, S., & Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J. (2021) · Springer series on child and family studies · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-70262-5_15 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
School Victimization, School Belongingness, Psychological Well-Being, and Emotional Problems in Adolescents
Arslan, G., & Allen, K. (2021) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-021-09813-4 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citation
Does Strength-Based Parenting Predict Academic Achievement? The Mediating Effects of Perseverance and Engagement
Waters, L., Loton, D., & Jach, H. K. M. (2019) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-018-9983-1 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Yet, ecological theory suggests student development and behavior is grounded in a series of concentric circles of influence, from the microsystem of immediate interaction between the student and close individuals, through to the mesosys‐ tem of interactions between these different microsystems, to the exosystem of str…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Associations between school climate and student life satisfaction: resilience and bullying as mediating factors
Aldridge, J. M., McChesney, K., & Afari, E. (2019) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-019-09296-9 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
School Values: A Comparison of Academic Motivation, Mental Health Promotion, and School Belonging With Student Achievement
Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Vella‐Brodrick, D., & Waters, L. E. (2017) · The Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1017/edp.2017.5 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citation
A socio‐ecological perspective on sense of belonging among racially/ethnically minoritized college students: Implications for equity‐minded practice and policy
Johnson, R. M. (2022) · New Directions for Higher Education · doi:10.1002/he.20427 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
School Belongingness in Academically At-Risk Adolescents: Addressing Psychosocial Functioning and Psychological Well-Being
Arslan, G., & Coşkun, M. (2022) · Journal of Happiness and Health · doi:10.47602/johah.v3i1.9 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Within this scope, a sense of connectedness in a school's socio-ecological climate, called school connectedness, is crucial for the healthy development of youth in the school setting (Allen et al., 2016).”
Background
Flourishing Classrooms: Applying a Systems-Informed Approach to Positive Education
Allison, L., Waters, L., & Kern, M. L. (2020) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-019-00267-8 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“…(Gu and Day 2007), teacher-student relationships (Cornelius-White 2016), the emotional environment that occurs amongst peers (e.g., sense of care, respect, trust amongst students) (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 2017) and a climate of connectedness (Allen et al. 2016a).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Complete mental health in elementary school children: Understanding youth school functioning and adjustment
Arslan, G., & Allen, K. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-00628-0 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citation
Exploring gender differences in achievement through student voice: Critical insights and analyses
Jackman, W. M., Morrain-Webb, J., & Fuller, C. (2019) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2019.1567895 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
The role of social belonging and exclusion at school and the teacher-student relationship for the development of learned helplessness in adolescents.
Raufelder, D., & Kulakow, S. (2021) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12438 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Examining predictors of school belonging using a socio-ecological perspective
Allen, K.-A., Cordoba, B. G., Ryan, T., Arslan, G., Slaten, C. D., Ferguson, J. K., Bozoglan, B., Abdollahi, A., & Vella-Brodrick, D. (2022) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-022-02305-1 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citation
School belonging, self‐efficacy, and meaning in life as mediators of bullying victimization and subjective well‐being in adolescents
Seon, Y., & Smith‐Adcock, S. (2021) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22534 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Testing the social-ecological factors of school belonging in native-born, first-generation, and second-generation Australian students: A comparison study
Allen, K.-A., Fortune, K. C., & Arslan, G. (2021) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-021-09634-x · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citation
Family cohesion and school belongingness: Protective factors for immigrant youth against bias‐based bullying
Shah, S., Choi, M. J., Miller, M., Halgunseth, L. C., van Schaik, S. D. M., & Brenick, A. (2021) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20410 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“School belongingness is developmentally important as it is associated with better coping strategies and health outcomes both of which are precursors of positive psychosocial functioning (Allen et al., 2016; Hong, Peguero, Espelage, & Allen-Meares, 2017).”
Background
The Right to Belong in School: A Critical, Transdisciplinary Conceptualization of School Belonging
Kuttner, P. J. (2023) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584231183407 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Very little work has touched on the exo-and macrosystems, which encompass the broader institutions, policies, discourses, and cultures within which schools and families function, or on the chronosystem, which takes into account the passage of time (Allen et al., 2016).”
Background
Adolescents’ Personality Traits and Positive Psychological Orientations: Relations with Emotional Distress and Life Satisfaction Mediated by School Connectedness
Kim, E. K., Furlong, M. J., & Dowdy, E. T. (2019) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-019-9619-y · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Addressing the Sense of School Belonging Among All Students? A Systematic Literature Review
Štremfel, U., Ivančič, K. Š., & Peras, I. (2024) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe14110190 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“As argued by Allen et al. [10], this definition emphasises the multiple features of school belonging for students, as well as the broader socio-ecological context of peers, students, and teachers within the school environment.”
A socio-political approach on autistic students’ sense of belonging in higher education
Pesonen, H. V., Nieminen, J. H., Vincent, J., Waltz, M., Lahdelma, M., Syurina, E. V., & Fabri, M. (2020) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2020.1852205 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“While recent important contributors have aimed to widen the functional and operational views on sense of belonging (e.g. Allen, Vella-Brodrick, and Waters 2016, 2018), a research gap still exists where research on belonging and disability studies intersect.”
Background
Determinants of Declining School Belonging 2000–2018: The Case of Sweden
Högberg, B., Petersen, S., Strandh, M., & Johansson, K. (2021) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-021-02662-2 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The Centrality of Connectedness: A Conceptual Synthesis of Attending, Belonging, Engaging and Flowing
Bowles, T., & Scull, J. (2018) · Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools · doi:10.1017/jgc.2018.13 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Eco-Capabilities as a Pathway to Wellbeing and Sustainability
Walshe, N., Moula, Z., & Lee, E. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14063582 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“This is important, as research with Gypsy, Roma and Traveller children suggests a pupil’s sense of belonging plays an important part in the way they engage with and experience education; pupils who feel a sense of belonging are more likely to remain in the education system [94].”
Background
Strength‐based parenting and stress‐related growth in adolescents: Exploring the role of positive reappraisal, school belonging, and emotional processing during the pandemic
Allen, K., Waters, L. E., Arslan, G., & Prentice, M. (2022) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1002/jad.12016 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citation
Social ostracism in school context: academic self-concept, prosocial behaviour, and adolescents’ conduct problems
Arslan, G. (2021) · The Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1080/20590776.2020.1834830 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Moreover, academic selfconcept within the ecological framework (Allen et al., 2016) can be considered as an individual-level factor mitigating the negative effect of social ostracism on the adverse outcomes and a powerful resource in coping with this painful experience in adolescents.”
Background
The psychometric evaluation of the sense of belonging instrument (SOBI) with Iranian older adults
Allen, K., Arslan, G., Craig, H., Arefi, S., Yaghoobzadeh, A., & Nia, H. S. (2021) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-021-02115-y · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citation
School Belonging and Student Engagement: The Critical Overlaps, Similarities, and Implications for Student Outcomes
Allen, K., & Boyle, C. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-07853-8_7 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citation
Cyberbullying victimisation and school dropout intention among South Korean adolescents: the moderating role of peer/teacher support
Lee, J., Chun, J., Kim, J., & Lee, J.-E. (2020) · Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development · doi:10.1080/02185385.2020.1774409 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“In fact, social-ecological determinants have been proven to be effective in understanding adolescent school dropout or school connect-edness/belonging in other studies as well (Allen et al., 2016; Ryu, 2015).”
Interventions to Improve Connectedness, Belonging, and Engagement in Secondary Schools: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Davies, C. A., Cordier, R., Graham, P., Littlefair, D., Speyer, R., & Melo, D. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15050582 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Where does culture belong at school? Exploring the role of individualism and power distance in school belonging across cultures
Johnson, R. G., Allen, K.-A., & Cordoba, B. G. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-05280-y · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Bronfenbrenner's socioecological theory of development (1977, 1979) provides a useful lens to consider school belonging as a multi-dimensional construct (Allen et al., 2016).”
Self-citation
How does race play out in schools? A scoping review and thematic analysis of racial issues in Australian schools
Yared, H., Grové, C., & Chapman, D. (2020) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-020-09589-5 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“It is also plausible that there are multiple systemic influences at play, which can be difficult to evaluate empirically (Allen et al. 2016).”
Background
Does Socioeconomic Status Moderate the Relationship Between School Belonging and School-Related factors in Australia?
Allen, K., Cordoba, B. G., Parks, A., & Arslan, G. (2022) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-022-09927-3 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Taken together, the present study provides further evidence for the importance of creating a safe school environment for students (Allen et al., 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Tracing the Growth, Gaps, and Characteristics in Positive Education Science: A Long-Term, Large-Scale Review of the Field
Waters, L. E., & Loton, D. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.774967 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Allen et al. (2016) argue that schools operate as nested systems that incorporate many levels of influence.”
Self-citation
A Socio-Ecological Framework for Research in Mathematics Education
Louie, N. L., & Zhan, W.-Y. (2022) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc-2022-0003 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Students’ subjective well-being, school bullying, and belonging during the COVID-19 pandemic: Comparison between PISA 2018 and PISA 2022
Li, J., Xue, E., Zhou, W., Guo, S., & Zheng, Y. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-04340-3 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Therefore, we recommend incorporating research evidence on school belong-ingness into the development of anti-bullying programs, such as the conceptual framework for school belongingness proposed by K. A. Allen et al. (2016), to take targeted actions to enhance students ’ subjective well-being.”
School Belonging: Evidence, Experts, and Everyday Gaps
Allen, K. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10055-x · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citation
Do intercultural education and attitudes promote student wellbeing and social outcomes? An examination across PISA countries
Basarkod, G., Dicke, T., Allen, K., Parker, P. D., Ryan, M. E., Marsh, H. W., Carrick, Z. T., & Guo, J. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.101879 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“…have direct implications for current conceptual and empirical socio-ecological models of wellbeing and school belonging, particularly in terms of contributing new knowledge about the weight and impact of different ecological layers (e.g., Aldridge & McChesney, 2018; Allen et al., 2016, 2021, 2022).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
How Do Young Children Understand and Action their Own Well-Being? Positive Psychology, Student Voice, and Well-Being Literacy in Early Childhood
Waters, L. E., Dussert, D., & Loton, D. J. (2021) · International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology · doi:10.1007/s41042-021-00056-w · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citation
Student-Identified Practices for Improving Belonging in Australian Secondary Schools: Moving Beyond COVID-19
Allen, K., Berger, E., Reupert, A., Grové, C., May, F., Patlamazoglou, L., Gamble, N., Wurf, G., & Warton, W. (2023) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-023-09596-9 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“The framework includes six interconnected levels: the individual level, the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem (Allen et al., 2016a, b).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Leveraging belonging in response to global loneliness
Allen, K., & Furlong, M. J. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1875532 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“At the same time, there may be value in considering socioecological strategies that foster positive macro institutions (Allen et al., 2016, 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Reframing Belonging in Higher Education: an Intersectional Ecological Model for Research, Policy, and Practice
Johnson, R. M. (2026) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10104-5 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“It aligns with and builds on prior adaptations of Bronfenbrenner’s theory to educational settings (Allen et al., 2016; Allen & Vella-Brodrick, 2018; Renn & Arnold, 2003: Johnson & Kenney, 2023) and recent empirical work validating a layered socio-ecological framework of school belonging (Allen et…”
Trust and Belonging in Individual and Organizational Relationships
Allen, K., Svendsen, G. T., Marwan, S., & Arslan, G. (2021) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-80071-264-520211002 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citation
Toward radical belonging: envisioning antiracist learning communities
Louie, N. L., Berland, L. K., Roeker, L., Nichols, K., Pacheco, M., & Grant, C. A. (2022) · Race Ethnicity and Education · doi:10.1080/13613324.2022.2106879 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Educators readily understand belonging as a fundamental human need (as it was characterized by Maslow 1943), with significant effects on students’ wellbeing and success (Allen, Vella-Brodrick, and Waters 2016; Slaten et al. 2016).”
Influential
Culturally based learning needs of Korowai students in a lowland-remote area of Indonesian Papua: school physical environment and building design
Fiharsono, A., Carey, M. D., Hyde, M. B., et al. (2023) · The Australian Educational Researcher · doi:10.1007/s13384-023-00615-x · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“This theme and the sub-themes can be interpreted through the lens of the socio-ecological framework of school belonging proposed by Allen et al. (2016) which is developed based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological framework for human development to school belonging.”
Influential
Evaluating the feasibility, fidelity, and preliminary effectiveness of a school-based intervention to improve the school participation and feelings of connectedness of elementary school students on the autism spectrum
Hodges, A., Cordier, R., Joosten, A. V., Bourke‐Taylor, H. M., & Chen, Y.-W. R. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0269098 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Despite evidence emphasising the significant impact school connectedness has on student outcomes, there is an imbalance in the curriculum and a paucity of interventions aimed specifically at increasing students’ experience of connection at schools [13, 14], particularly for elementary school students on the autism spe…”
BackgroundInfluential
Understanding parental involvement with schools and parental engagement with learning across schools in areas of socioeconomic deprivation in Wales
Bond, A. R. F., Moore, G. F., & Hawkins, J. L. (2024) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/00131911.2024.2432255 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Research on school belonging has highlighted that a student’s sense of school belonging is influenced by individual, relationship and organisational factors related to the school and within political, cultural and geographical factors related to the unique school setting (Allen et al., 2016).”
Institutional Factors Affecting Postsecondary Student Mental Wellbeing: A Scoping Review of the Canadian Literature
Thaivalappil, A., Stringer, J., Burnett, A., & Papadopoulos, A. (2023) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych5030040 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“The socioecological model of health promotion has been applied as a framework to identify and map the several levels of influence that impact student wellbeing [1,2], and it posits that a combination of individual, interpersonal, institutional, community, and policy-level factors interact with one another to determine…”
Background
The Role of Psychological Sense of School Membership and Postcode as Predictors of Profiles of Socio-emotional Health in Primary School Children in England
Castro, S., Palikara, O., Gaona, C., Eirinaki, V., & Furlong, M. J. (2019) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-019-09349-7 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Secondary school students’ perspectives on supports for overcoming school attendance problems: a qualitative case study in Germany
Enderle, C., Kreitz-Sandberg, S., Backlund, Å., Isaksson, J., Fredriksson, U., & Ricking, H. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1405395 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
What Fosters School Connectedness? The Roles of Classroom Interactions and Parental Support
Peng, A., Patterson, M. M., & Joo, S. (2023) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-023-01908-1 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Despite the critical role of teachers and the importance of classroom interactions (Allen et al., 2016, 2021; McNeely et al., 2002), few empirical studies have fully explored speci ﬁ c elements of classroom interactions in fostering school connectedness.”
The interaction of race/ethnicity and school-connectedness in presenting internalizing and externalizing behaviors among adolescents
Choi, M. J., Lee, S., Kim, J., & Lee, J. (2024) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.107605 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The Role of Sports in School Belonging of Syrian Refugee Students in Turkey
Sağın, A. E., Yücekaya, M. A., Uğraş, S., & Temel, C. (2022) · e-International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.19160/e-ijer.1024983 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
A perspective on psychological factors affecting the emotional labor of teachers
Attwood, A. I. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1291698 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Fostering a sense of belonging at an international school in France: An experimental study
Dunleavy, G., & Burke, J. (2019) · Educational and Child Psychology · doi:10.53841/bpsecp.2019.36.4.34 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Fostering Students’ Sense of School Belonging: Emotional Intelligence and Socio-Ecological Perspectives
Turan, H., & Altun, S. A. (2025) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence13090112 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Some of the research on SoSB has undertaken the important task of providing a holistic framework of belonging based on a socio-ecological approach (Allen et al. 2016, 2022; Akbaba Altun and Turan Bora 2024).”
Influential
Problem-based learning and pedagogies of play: Active approaches towards Self-Directed Learning
Havenga, M., Olivier, J. A. K., & Bunt, B. J. (2023) · NWU self-directed learning series · doi:10.4102/aosis.2023.bk409 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Individual and Contextual Factors Determining School Belonging of Adolescents in the UK: Evidence from PISA
Palikara, O., Bonneville‐Roussy, A., & Allen, K. (2025) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-024-09725-y · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“The socio-ecological framework first posed by Allen et al. (2016) gives meta-analytical evidence to the potential for a variety of additional contextual factors to influence SB (Allen et al., 2018a, b; Allen, Vella-Brodrick, & Waters, 2018b).”
Self-citation
Effects of school environment on depression among Black and White adolescents
Choi, M. J., Hong, J. S., Travis, R., & Kim, J. (2022) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22969 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The sense of school belonging: Its importance for the positive development of students and prevention of behavioural problems
Trajković, M., & Popović-Ćitić, B. (2022) · Nastava i vaspitanje · doi:10.5937/nasvas2203403s · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Exploring the educational experiences of children and young people adopted from care: Using the voices of children and parents to inform practice
Best, R., Cameron, C., & Hill, V. (2021) · Adoption & Fostering · doi:10.1177/03085759211043255 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Highlighting Counterstereotypical Scientists in Undergraduate Life Science Courses
Costello, R. A., Ewell, S. N., Adams, P. E., Aranda, M. L., Curry, A., Jesus, M. M. D., Dunk, R. D. P., García‐Ojeda, M. E., Gutzler, S. J., Habersham, L. R. A., et al. (2025) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.24-02-0082 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“For example, this framework has been used at the K-12 level to explore the environmental factors that promote student sense of belonging at school (Allen et al. , 2016, 2023).”
“So That You Can Feel Well”: Perspectives of Students with Social, Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties on Factors that Support School Attendance
Enderle, C. (2025) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-025-09764-z · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“These elements are consistent with evidence-based classroom practices that enhance engagement and a sense of belonging (Allen et al., 2016).”
Influential
Enhancing Positive Wellbeing in Schools: The Relationship Between Inclusion and Belonging
Boyle, C., Allen, K., Bleeze, R., Bozorg, B., & Sheridan, K. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-5609-8_17 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citation
The creative-being model: the role of negative emotion in creative flourishing and the impact on positive education
Beresford, K., Kern, M. L., & Jarden, A. (2024) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2024.2322467 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“A range of socio-ecological factors interact with student wellbeing, including teacher-student relationships (Cornelius-White, 2007), student-student relationships, and a sense of safety, trust, belonging, and connectedness (Allen et al., 2016).”
International graduate students’ perspectives on sense of belonging in leisure
Tewari, K., Lundin, E., Cho, S.-J., Du, X., Oliveira, J. R., & Fernandez, M. (2024) · Journal of Hospitality Leisure Sport & Tourism Education · doi:10.1016/j.jhlste.2024.100505 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The unique social-emotional challenges that bright immigrant youth face
Maralani, F. M., & Pfeiffer, S. I. (2024) · Gifted Education International · doi:10.1177/02614294241279354 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Allen et al. (2016) describe how school elements such as resources, management practices, and policies in ﬂ uence students ’ sense of belonging.”
“Black Girl Magic is everything”: Recommendations for cultivating supportive spaces for Black girls
Mims, L., Burnett, M., Martin, R., Leath, S. C., & Harris-Thomas, B. (2023) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405841.2023.2287721 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…relationships, creating physical spaces and opportunities to belong is an important component in helping to support Black girls’ overall well-being (Allen et al., 2016) and increase academic engagement, achievement, and persistence (Anderman, 2003; Matthews et al., 2014; Vargas-Madriz & Konishi,…”
Background
Factors predicting teachers' implementation of inquiry‐based teaching practices: Analysis of South African TIMSS 2019 data from an ecological perspective
Ogegbo, A. A., Ramnarain, U. D., & Krajcik, J. S. (2024) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21943 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Relative Deprivation Mediates the Relationship Between Social Exclusion and Adolescent Depression
Mucuk, M. D., & Şahin, E. S. (2025) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.23447 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“In this context, intervention programs designed by Allen et al. (2018) and Allen et al. (2016) to strengthen students' sense of belonging can be used, as they have already been tested and evaluated and can be easily applied in everyday school life.”
Key factors influencing the sense of belonging in students experiencing marginalisation: a systematic literature review
Zaman, R. A., Sharma, U., & Round, P. (2025) · International Journal of Inclusive Education · doi:10.1080/13603116.2025.2556000 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Authorities should offer training opportunities for teachers to improve relationships with students, create positive, safe, and fair classroom environments, and implement student-centred pedagogy (K.-A. Allen, Vella-Brodrick, and Waters 2016).”
Austrian students’ experiences of supportive relationships with teachers, peers, and parents and the mediating effect of school belonging in the context of their academic and non-academic outcomes
Hagenauer, G., Wallner-Paschon, C., & Kühn, C. (2021) · Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung · doi:10.1007/s35834-021-00300-y · Cited by 8 · see citing works
An exploration of rural Chinese teachers’ wellbeing: Insights from mixture modelling of latent profile analysis
Bo, C., McCallum, F., & White, M. A. (2022) · International Journal of Chinese Education · doi:10.1177/2212585x221097719 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“(2016) and Allen et al. (2016) and meaning and purpose by Mac Intosh et al. (2020). However, only a handful of studies have considered teacher wellbeing systematically (Liu et al., 2018; McCallum & Price, 2016; Spilt et al., 2011). As shown in a comprehensive literature review of the state of teacher wellbeing by McCa…”
BackgroundInfluential
Barriers to school attendance as experienced by young people and their parents: A Narrative Oriented Inquiry
Want, H., & Gulliford, A. (2024) · Educational and Child Psychology · doi:10.53841/bpsecp.2024.41.1.9 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The association of individual and contextual variables with bullying victimisation: a cross-national comparison between Ireland and Lithuania
Pitsia, V., & Mazzone, A. (2020) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-020-00514-0 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Previous studies have shown that sense of school belonging is influenced by individual and contextual factors (Allen et al., 2016).”
BackgroundInfluential
Professionals’ stories of supporting belonging for autistic children in Finnish early childhood education and care
Pesonen, H. V., Äikäs, A., Viljamaa, E., Heiskanen, N., Syrjämäki, M., & Kärnä, E. (2023) · Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood · doi:10.1177/14639491231212943 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In recent years, belonging research has aimed to reach beyond the individual, using, for example, Bronfenbrenner ’ s socio-ecological framework (Allen et al., 2016, 2018) and drawing on relational and intersectional approaches regarding children ’ s belonging (Puroila et al., 2021).”
Editorial
Allen, K., Boyle, C., & Roffey, S. (2019) · Educational and Child Psychology · doi:10.53841/bpsecp.2019.36.4.5 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citation
Loving lunch in junior high: Lunchtime activities and a sense of belonging in school.
Whiting, E., Hinton, A., & Jensen, B. (2022) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22809 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The Happiness Experiences of Refugee Children at School: a Phenomenological Study
Çelik, O. T., Kahraman, Ü., Kaçmaz, C., & İçen, B. K. (2024) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-024-10206-6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The exosystem refers to systems in which the child is not directly involved but indirectly affected; other schools and non-family social structures fall into this category (Allen et al., 2016).”
A Conceptual Relation Between the Need to Belong and Sense-of-Belongingness
Pardede, S., & Kovač, V. B. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251320281 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
School Connectedness: Examining Measurement Invariance by Gender and Grade
Peng, A., Patterson, M. M., & Fite, P. J. (2023) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/07342829231191161 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“School safety has been found to be a central theme in the operationalization of school connectedness (Allen et al., 2016; Libbey, 2004; Wingspread Declaration on School Connections, 2004).”
Background
Coming Together
Allen, K., Riley, K., Gowing, A., Lim, M. H., Boyle, C., Vota, R. M., Richardson, M., Wolfe, M. J., Cruwys, T., Stevens, M., et al. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003013778-19 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citation
Belonging as a Core Construct at the Heart of the Inclusion Debate, Discourse, and Practice
Allen, K., Boyle, C., Sharma, U., Patlamazoglou, L., Pentaris, P., Grové, C., Yared, H., Berger, E., Gamble, N., Morris, Z. A., et al. (2022) · Sustainable development goals series · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-5908-9_21 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
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Praise publicly, correct privately: how secondary teachers cultivate school belonging and classroom community
Booker, K. C. (2023) · Teachers and Teaching · doi:10.1080/13540602.2023.2225434 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“(Ilene, Special Education, 8 years) Emotional stability (Allen et al., 2016) is an important consideration as it relates to school belonging and classroom community.”
Background
Creating and Leading Powerful Learning Relationships Through a Whole School Community Approach
Otero, G. G. (2019) · Palgrave studies on leadership and learning in teacher education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23736-3_13 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Associations between teacher support, school belonging, and school bullying victimization among Chinese upper elementary school students: A multi-group analysis based on gender
Guo, J., Zhao, B., Jiang, L., et al. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06777-w · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Secondly, according to these findings, the socio-ecological framework of school belonging (Allen et al., 2016), and the belong-ingness hypothesis (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), this study proposes an energy hypothesis of school belonging, which should be empirically tested in future studies.”
Influential
School connectedness in the investigation of adolescents’ learning and well-being development: Protocol for a scoping review
Wu, L., O’Mara-Eves, A., & Dickson, K. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2025.102761 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Changing Behavior Using Ecological Models
Salmon, J., Hesketh, K. D., Arundell, L., Downing, K. L., & Biddle, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.017 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Ecological Systems and Complexity Theory: Toward an Alternative Model of Accountability in Education
Johnson, E. S. (2008) · Complicity An International Journal of Complexity and Education · doi:10.29173/cmplct8777 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Ecological Systems and Complexity Theory: Toward an Alternative Model of Accountability in Education
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The social-ecological model of cyberbullying: Digital media as a predominant ecology in the everyday lives of youth
Patel, M.-G., & Quan‐Haase, A. (2022) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448221136508 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Different ecological perspectives for evaluating residential care outcomes: Which window for the black box?
Palareti, L., & Berti, C. (2009) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.07.011 · Cited by 31 · see citing works

Authors: Allen, K.-A., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Waters, L.
Affiliations: The University of Melbourne (AU)
The University of Melbourne
Corresponding author: Allen, Kelly-Ann
ORCID: Allen, Kelly-Ann
Waters, Lea
Venue: Educational and Developmental Psychologist
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2016-07
Volume: 33
Issue: 1
Pages: 97-121
ISSN: 2059-0776 (ISSN-L)
2059-0784
DOI: 10.1017/edp.2016.5
OpenAlex: W2419261564
Semantic Scholar: 3fca41db063d92411f7e2582fbebdb074526a795
Cited by: 212
References: 144
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 1
FWCI: 25.16
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified)
Locations: The Educational and Developmental Psychologist (publishedVersion)
Funders: University of Cambridge
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Social Sciences › Safety Research › Youth Development and Social Support
Health Sciences › Health Professions › Speech and Hearing › School Health and Nursing Education
Keywords: school belonging, socio-ecological framework, ecological systems theory, high school students, adolescent mental health, student well-being, school environment, microsystems, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem

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Fostering School Belonging in Secondary Schools Using a Socio-Ecological Framework

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