The DOI matches its Crossref record; 98 of the 99 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Horizontal Inequalities and Ethnonationalist Civil War: A Global Comparison
Open accessAbstract
Contemporary research on civil war has largely dismissed the role of political and economic grievances, focusing instead on opportunities for conflict. However, these strong claims rest on questionable theoretical and empirical grounds. Whereas scholars have examined primarily the relationship between individual inequality and conflict, we argue that horizontal inequalities between politically relevant ethnic groups and states at large can promote ethnonationalist conflict. Extending the empirical scope to the entire world, this article introduces a new spatial method that combines our newly geocoded data on ethnic groups’ settlement areas with spatial wealth estimates. Based on these methodological advances, we find that, in highly unequal societies, both rich and poor groups fight more often than those groups whose wealth lies closer to the country average. Our results remain robust to a number of alternative sample definitions and specifications.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Using EPR's geocoded data on ethnic settlement areas, Cederman, Weidmann and Gleditsch (2011) extend the study of political exclusion to economic inequality, in order to show that ethnic groups that are poorer and richer than the country's average income are more likely to stage rebellion.”
From Dynamics and Logics of Civil War (2017) · cites this paper as Cederman, Weidmann and Gleditsch (2011)
In the citing paper
“The resulting polarization might incentivize these individuals/groups to seize political power by force to redistribute wealth in their favor, thus increasing the likelihood of conflict (Cederman et al 2011, Guariso and Rogall 2017, Koubi 2017).”
From The impacts of climate change on violent conflict risk: a review of causal pathways (2024) · cites this paper as Cederman et al 2011
In the citing paper
“As Cederman et al. (2011, 481) argue, “Violations of norms of justice and equality will typically arouse feelings of anger and resentment among members of the disadvantaged group.””
From Conflict Recurrence and Postconflict Justice: Addressing Motivations and Opportunities for Sustainable Peace (2017) · cites this paper as Cederman et al. 2011
Citations
Cites
An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199269464.003.0005 · Cited by 12,701
The Social psychology of intergroup relations
Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1979) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 11,577
Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War
FEARON, J. D., & LAITIN, D. D. (2003) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055403000534 · Cited by 7,366
Greed and grievance in civil war
Collier, P. D. (2004) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/gpf064 · Cited by 6,295
States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China
Skocpol, T. (1979) · Cambridge University Press · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511815805 · Cited by 5,408
Kuper, L., & Horowitz, D. L. (1986) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2069338 · Cited by 4,891
Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy
Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2005) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511510809 · Cited by 4,810
From Mobilization to Revolution
Stearns, P. N., & Tilly, C. (1979) · The American Historical Review · doi:10.2307/1855671 · Cited by 4,583
From Mobilization to Revolution
Tilly, C. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315205021-5 · Cited by 4,010
Armed Conflict 1946-2001: A New Dataset
GLEDITSCH, N. P., WALLENSTEEN, P., ERIKSSON, M., SOLLENBERG, M., & STRAND, H. (2002) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343302039005007 · Cited by 3,846
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Turner, 1981, Intergroup Behaviour, 66
- Moore, 1966, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy
- Ross, 2005, Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis, 35
- Tilly, 1999, Durable Inequality
- Gamson, 1992, Talking Politics
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 901–1,000 of 1,000
Coakley, J., & Todd, J. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841388.002.0010
Coakley, J., & Todd, J. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841388.002.0004
Environmental Displacement and Political Violence
Chesler, A. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009417150.016
Environmental Violence Impacts, Responses, Resistance, and Alternatives
Marcantonio, R. A., Lederach, J. P., & Fuentes, A. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009417150.015
Tay, S. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4892492
Conflict and nation: The colonial origins of ethnic exclusion and discrimination in Latin AmericaPreprint
Toro, P. G., Schenoni, L. L., & Madrid, R. L. (2024) · doi:10.33774/apsa-2024-pbrn4
Bringing Identity Back in the “Arab Uprisings”
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.003.0004
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.003.0006
Why Revolts Spread and Often Succeed
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.003.0003
Chapter 2 Data Sources and Robustness Checks
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.005.0002
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.003.0007
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.002.0007
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.002.0006
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.005.0001
The People Overthrew the Regimes
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.003.0005
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.003.0002
Toska, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197774892.003.0001
Where You Sit Is Where You Stand: Perceived (In)Equality and Demand for Democracy in Africa
Isbell, T. (2024) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-024-03409-5
Nonviolent Conflict and the Transitions to ‘Multi-Party Democracy’ in Burkina Faso
Issifu, A. K., & Amanquandor, T. D. L. (2024) · Advances in African economic, social and political development · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-52905-4_20
The state of contemporary intergroup conflict in the Papua New Guinea Highlands
Forsyth, M. (2024) · Journal of Aggression Conflict and Peace Research · doi:10.1108/jacpr-09-2024-0938
Does Local Representation Reduce Self-Determination Conflict?
Corvalán, A. (2024) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/00220027241299815
Mayoral, L., & Esteban, J. M. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/bs.hoec.2024.10.001
What Makes Civil Wars Protracted? A Review of Systemic, Organizational & Individual-Level Factors
Öztürk, Y. (2024) · Güvenlik Çalışmaları Dergisi · doi:10.54627/gcd.1578510
Identity concessions in ethnic civil wars: When are they given and with what outcomes for peace?
Daniels, L.-A. (2024) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/00223433241289813
Redistributive Impacts of Civil War: The Case of Côte d'Ivoire
Hlásny, V. (2025) · Review of Development Economics · doi:10.1111/rode.13189 · Cited by 1
Elite Identity, Land Inequality, and Local Development: Evidence from Colonial IrelandPreprint
Bowles, J., Koehler‐Derrick, G., & Olson, M. P. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5095639
Ethnic Parties: Their Emergence, Survival, and Impact
Basnet, P. (2022) · doi:10.12794/metadc1986834
Grillo, G. (2025) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2025.1432824
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0009
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0006
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0008
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0012
Current Understanding of Terrorist Mobilization and Persistence
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0002
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.002.0006
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0005
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0001
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0004
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0011
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.005.0001
Admissions of Failure and the 1981 Ceasefire
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0007
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0010
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.002.0005
Bennett, N. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.001.0001
The Organizational Survival Approach to Terrorism
Bennett, N. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197764268.003.0003
Multidimensional Identity Cleavages and Religious Discrimination
Mirilovic, N., Zellman, A., & Fox, J. (2025) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/00220027251324465
Using the Tsetlin Machine to Discover Fatality-Based Transitions in Political Violence
Hsu, H.-C., Bang-Jensen, B., Colaresi, M. P., Chrysanthis, P. K., & Zadorozhny, V. (2024) · International Symposium on the Tsetlin Machine (ISTM) · doi:10.1109/istm62799.2024.10931322
The Classifications and Typologies of National Resilience
Helled, A., & Pala, C. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-84270-2_3
Internal Versus External Rent-Seeking with In-Group Inequality and Public Good ProvisionPreprint
Bakshi, D., & Dasgupta, I. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5243389
A Two-Sector, Two-Class Model of Economic Growth
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0029
Macroeconomic Fluctuations, Inequality, and Growth
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0032
Alternative Theories of Inequality
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0005
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0037
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0028
Eliminating Extreme Inequality
Stiglitz, J. E., & Doyle, M. W. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0008
Landlords, Tenants, and Technological Innovations
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0027
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.002.0003
Credit Rationing, Tenancy, Productivity, and the Dynamics of Inequality
Stiglitz, J. E., & Braverman, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0026
Rewriting the Rules of the Economy and the Shaping of American Inequality
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0006
The Welfare State in the Twenty-First Century
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0038
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.002.0004
Explaining the New Stylized Facts of Growth and Distribution
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0011
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0012
Equilibrium Income and Wealth Distributions
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0013
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0014
Wealth and Income Distribution
Stiglitz, J. E., & Ravi, K. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0007
The Role of Credit and the Financial System in Creating Wealth Inequality
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0016
Monopoly, Rents, and Political Equilibrium
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0017
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0018
The Role of Land in Creating Wealth Inequality
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0015
Introduction and Overview of the Volume
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0001
Inequality and the Business Cycle
Stiglitz, J. E., & Furman, J. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0031
Participation, collaboration, and nonparticipation in civil war
Kubota, Y. (2012) · Scholars Archive - University at Albany (University at Albany, State University of New York) · doi:10.54014/5kdr-hqxe
Us Versus Them: Ethnic Inequality, Diversionary Nationalism, and International ConflictPreprint
Ngo, T. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5350068
ConflictPreprint
Rohner, D. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5380229
The Distribution Characteristics and Influencing Factors of Global Armed Conflict Clusters
Hao, M.-M., Ma, S., Jiang, D., Ding, F., Chen, S., Zhuo, J., Wu, G., Dong, J.-P., & Wu, J. (2025) · Syst. · doi:10.3390/systems13080670
Why Economic Development Does Not Diminish Religious Conflict
Saiya, N., & Manchanda, S. (2025) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1093/isq/sqaf060
Horizontal Inequality and International Peacebuilding Architecture
Oyekanmi, O. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-01654-6_3
Framework for Analyzing the Impact of Conflict
Yamao, D. (2025) · Evidence-Based Approaches to Peace and Conflict Studies · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-7560-9_2
The political economy of group domination and pre-electoral violence
Ghosh, S., Sekeris, P. G., & Silwal, S. B. (2025) · Journal of Population Economics · doi:10.1007/s00148-025-01125-z
Prices and Protests: Evidence from Maize Markets Across AfricaPreprint
Humphreys, A., & Ubilava, D. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5665911
Does Ethnopolitical Exclusion Cause Civil War Onset via Grievances? Evidence from 15 Case Studies
Leipziger, L. E., Rørbæk, L. L., & Skaaning, S. (2025) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592725103101
Prices and Protests: Evidence from Maize Markets Across AfricaPreprint
Humphreys, A., & Ubilava, D. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5797014
Reality or Rhetoric? Between-Group Inequality and the Use of Grievance Frames on Social Media
Gremler, F., Haiges, L., Weidmann, N. B., & Zuber, C. I. (2025) · Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00323217251401758
Self-citationSuzuki, S. (2013) · Human Biology
Weidmann, N. B. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-01164-2_37
Self-citationMapping Educational Inequality Worldwide
Altinok, N., & Diebolt, C. (2026) · Population economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-13277-2_4
Defining Obstacles to and Capacities for Peace in Medellín
Luitjens, M. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-07128-6_6
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.003.0001
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.002.0006
The Relationship between Repression and Coups
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.003.0007
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.003.0002
Career Pressure and Excessive Disloyalty
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.003.0005
Dissecting the Authoritarian Security Apparatus
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.003.0003
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.002.0005
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.002.0002
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.002.0007
Career Pressure and Excessive Loyalty
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.003.0004
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.003.0008
Metadata
- Authors
- CEDERMAN, L.-E., WEIDMANN, N. B., & GLEDITSCH, K. S.
- Affiliations
- ETH Zurich (CH)
- Yale University (US)
- University of Essex (GB)
- Corresponding author
- CEDERMAN, LARS-ERIK
- WEIDMANN, NILS B.
- GLEDITSCH, KRISTIAN SKREDE
- Venue
- American Political Science Review
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2011-07-11
- Volume
- 105
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 478-495
- ISSN
- 0003-0554 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5943
- OpenAlex
- W2122757622
- Cited by
- 1,028
- References
- 99
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 117 · 2024: 79 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 53 · 2020: 126 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 67 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 80 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 185.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Political Science Review (publishedVersion)
- Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (acceptedVersion)
- reroDoc Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- ETH Zürich Research Collection
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (180441, 105511)
- European Science Foundation
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (105511, 116795)
- Norges Forskningsråd
- Economic and Social Research Council (RES-062-23-, ES/E007147/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › General Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Natural Resources and Economic Development
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
- Keywords
- horizontal inequality, ethnic conflict, ethnic groups, geocoded data, political grievances, economic grievances
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
