The DOI matches its Crossref record; 98 of the 99 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Horizontal Inequalities and Ethnonationalist Civil War: A Global Comparison
Open accessAbstract
Contemporary research on civil war has largely dismissed the role of political and economic grievances, focusing instead on opportunities for conflict. However, these strong claims rest on questionable theoretical and empirical grounds. Whereas scholars have examined primarily the relationship between individual inequality and conflict, we argue that horizontal inequalities between politically relevant ethnic groups and states at large can promote ethnonationalist conflict. Extending the empirical scope to the entire world, this article introduces a new spatial method that combines our newly geocoded data on ethnic groups’ settlement areas with spatial wealth estimates. Based on these methodological advances, we find that, in highly unequal societies, both rich and poor groups fight more often than those groups whose wealth lies closer to the country average. Our results remain robust to a number of alternative sample definitions and specifications.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Using EPR's geocoded data on ethnic settlement areas, Cederman, Weidmann and Gleditsch (2011) extend the study of political exclusion to economic inequality, in order to show that ethnic groups that are poorer and richer than the country's average income are more likely to stage rebellion.”
From Dynamics and Logics of Civil War (2017) · cites this paper as Cederman, Weidmann and Gleditsch (2011)
In the citing paper
“The resulting polarization might incentivize these individuals/groups to seize political power by force to redistribute wealth in their favor, thus increasing the likelihood of conflict (Cederman et al 2011, Guariso and Rogall 2017, Koubi 2017).”
From The impacts of climate change on violent conflict risk: a review of causal pathways (2024) · cites this paper as Cederman et al 2011
In the citing paper
“As Cederman et al. (2011, 481) argue, “Violations of norms of justice and equality will typically arouse feelings of anger and resentment among members of the disadvantaged group.””
From Conflict Recurrence and Postconflict Justice: Addressing Motivations and Opportunities for Sustainable Peace (2017) · cites this paper as Cederman et al. 2011
Citations
Cites
An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199269464.003.0005 · Cited by 12,701
The Social psychology of intergroup relations
Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1979) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 11,577
Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War
FEARON, J. D., & LAITIN, D. D. (2003) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055403000534 · Cited by 7,366
Greed and grievance in civil war
Collier, P. D. (2004) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/gpf064 · Cited by 6,295
States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China
Skocpol, T. (1979) · Cambridge University Press · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511815805 · Cited by 5,408
Kuper, L., & Horowitz, D. L. (1986) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2069338 · Cited by 4,891
Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy
Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2005) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511510809 · Cited by 4,810
From Mobilization to Revolution
Stearns, P. N., & Tilly, C. (1979) · The American Historical Review · doi:10.2307/1855671 · Cited by 4,583
From Mobilization to Revolution
Tilly, C. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315205021-5 · Cited by 4,010
Armed Conflict 1946-2001: A New Dataset
GLEDITSCH, N. P., WALLENSTEEN, P., ERIKSSON, M., SOLLENBERG, M., & STRAND, H. (2002) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343302039005007 · Cited by 3,846
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Turner, 1981, Intergroup Behaviour, 66
- Moore, 1966, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy
- Ross, 2005, Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis, 35
- Tilly, 1999, Durable Inequality
- Gamson, 1992, Talking Politics
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–700 of 1,000
A Rigged Economy and What We Can Do about It
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0002 · Cited by 1
Chen, C., Beardsley, K. C., & Weidmann, N. B. (2025) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/00223433251317102 · Cited by 1
Self-citationYoung Palestinians’ Interpretations of the May 2021 Events
Yehuda, L., Falah, J. F., & Rozmann, N. (2025) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x251352125 · Cited by 1
When conflict meets political exclusion: Ethnicity, governance, and child mortality
Chang, S., Ives, B., & Oh, J. (2025) · SSM: Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2025.101842 · Cited by 1
Political Entrepreneurs or Bandits? The “Criminal” Origins of Peripheral Rebellions
Lewis, J. I., & Rangazas, S. (2025) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592725102065 · Cited by 1
Private goods for peace: Economic provisions of peace agreements and the durability of peace
D'Amico, E., Sosa, S., & Melin, M. M. (2025) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/00223433251345382 · Cited by 1
Dankenbring, M., Volg, I., & Ruhe, C. (2025) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1093/isq/sqaf072 · Cited by 1
Making a Career in Dictatorship
Gläßel, C., & Scharpf, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780197831229.001.0001 · Cited by 1
Positive contact dominates Jewish–Palestinian interactions in mixed Israeli neighborhoods
Dornschneider, S., Christ, O., Schäfer, S. J., Munder, A. K., Halabi, S., Maoz, I., & Sobol-Sarag, D. (2026) · Conflict Management and Peace Science · doi:10.1177/07388942261427231 · Cited by 1
Inequality and terrorism: a meta-regression analysis
Anwar, A., & Li, Q. (2026) · Public Choice · doi:10.1007/s11127-026-01398-2 · Cited by 1
Inequality, Culture, and Violence: Assessing the Legacy of Johan Galtung
Hillesund, S., & Østby, G. (2026) · Journal of Global Security Studies · doi:10.1093/jogss/ogag008 · Cited by 1
Abbas, T. (2026) · Political Geography · doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2026.103585 · Cited by 1
EL DÉFICIT CIVILIZATORIO DE NUESTRO RÉGIMEN POLÍTICO. LA OTRA ANOMALÍA EN UNA PERSPECTIVA COMPARADA
Sanín, F. A. G. (2012) · Análisis Político · Cited by 1
Explaining divergent responses to ethnic exclusion: evidence from two paired comparisons
Lindemann, S. (2014) · Conflict Security and Development · doi:10.1080/14678802.2014.903693 · Cited by 1
Somma, N. M. (2016) · Social Science History · doi:10.1017/ssh.2016.2 · Cited by 1
Constitutional Definition of the Demos and Inter‐Ethnic Relations
Koós, A. K. (2016) · Politics & Policy · doi:10.1111/polp.12170 · Cited by 1
Berman, N., Couttenier, M., & Soubeyran, R. (2017) · Journal of the European Economic Association · doi:10.1093/jeea/jvz068 · Cited by 44
Friedens- und Konfliktforschung
Schädel, A. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-23644-1_2 · Cited by 1
Perceived linkages to politicians and group deprivation sentiment
Ash, K. (2019) · Politics Groups and Identities · doi:10.1080/21565503.2019.1584753 · Cited by 1
The Sunningdale Agreement, 1973
Coakley, J., & Todd, J. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841388.003.0002 · Cited by 1
Playing the Ethnic Card: Diversion, Transborder Ethnic Ties, and Sponsorship of Rebel Movements
Jones, B. T., & Linebarger, C. (2020) · Journal of Global Security Studies · doi:10.1093/jogss/ogaa056 · Cited by 1
Ethnicity and Violence in Weak States: Understanding the Mechanisms
Martin, P., & Miller, A. C. (2022) · Comparative Politics · doi:10.5129/001041522x16420169882963 · Cited by 1
King, K. L., & Meernik, J. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108236065.007 · Cited by 1
Geodaten und deren Analyse in der Politikwissenschaft
Weidmann, N. B., & Gleditsch, K. S. (2018) · Springer Reference Sozialwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-16937-4_23-1 · Cited by 1
Self-citationEnding civil wars through fraudulent elections
Lehmann, M. C. (2023) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/gpad002 · Cited by 1
Peace, Pandemics, and Conflict
Taylor, N. B. (2023) · Rethinking peace and conflict studies · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24315-8_5 · Cited by 1
A THEORY OF RELIGIOUS GRIEVANCE: UNDERSTANDING THE CONFLICT IN AFGHANISTAN
Joya, O., & Rahimi, L. (2023) · POLITICS AND RELIGION JOURNAL · doi:10.54561/prj1701161j · Cited by 1
Identity and support for policies towards Indigenous people: evidence from Australia
Mavisakalyan, A., & Tarverdi, Y. (2023) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-023-03086-w · Cited by 1
Jung, H.-R. (2023) · European Journal of Development Research · doi:10.1057/s41287-023-00593-x · Cited by 1
Within Ethnic Population Inequality and within Self-Determination Movement Violence
Ives, B. (2023) · Defence and Peace Economics · doi:10.1080/10242694.2023.2247509 · Cited by 1
Sun, C.-R., Liu, X., & Xu, J.-Q. (2023) · Journal of Asian Economics · doi:10.1016/j.asieco.2023.101670 · Cited by 1
Stewart, M. A., & Kitchens, K. (2021) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/729974 · Cited by 1
Inequality and Economic Growth
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0004 · Cited by 2
Simple Formulae for the Measurement of Inequality and the Optimal Linear Income Tax
Stiglitz, J. E. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0022 · Cited by 1
Does peace research need knowledge on social policy?
Kivimäki, T. (2025) · Global Social Policy · doi:10.1177/14680181251348871 · Cited by 1
Horizontal inequalities and market instability in Africa
Brown, G. K., & Stewart, F. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139198998.014 · Cited by 1
What Causes Civil Conflicts? Back to “Grievance vs. Greed”
Dixon, J. S. (2014) · International Studies Review · doi:10.1111/misr.12175 · Cited by 1
Beyond Ethnicity: African Protests in an Age of Inequality
Ángeles, L. (2014) · Cited by 1
Ethnic Conflict: Questions and Answers
James, P., & Mohammadian, C. (2016) · Ethnopolitics · doi:10.1080/17449057.2016.1235827 · Cited by 1
De la economía a la ética, ¿qué fue de la política? Para una teoría estructural de la igualdad
Suárez, R. M. (2016) · Revista de Estudios Políticos · doi:10.18042/cepc/rep.174.10 · Cited by 1
Crosscutting cleavages and ethno-communal violence: Evidence from Indonesia in the post-Suharto era
Gubler, J. R., Selway, J., & Varshney, A. (2016) · Working Paper Series · doi:10.35188/unu-wider/2016/173-4 · Cited by 1
Inequality, ethnicity, and social cohesion
McDoom, O. S. (2017) · Working Paper Series · doi:10.35188/unu-wider/2017/430-8 · Cited by 1
Die Beschaffenheit des politischen Systems von Bosnien und Herzegowina
Gromes, T. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-19084-6_3 · Cited by 1
Analytical Framework and Methodological Approach to Research Education and Peacebuilding
Cardozo, M. L. L. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93812-7_2 · Cited by 3
Unintended consequences of post-conflict power-sharing. Explaining civilian activism
Krtsch, R., & Vüllers, J. (2019) · Zeitschrift für Friedens- und Konfliktforschung · doi:10.1007/s42597-019-00002-3 · Cited by 1
The Power and Limits of Nonviolent Ethnic Movements
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0008 · Cited by 1
Continual Contestations at the China-Myanmar Border
Han, E. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190688301.003.0008 · Cited by 1
Does Repression Prevent Successful Campaigns?
Tanneberg, D. (2020) · Contributions to political science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35477-0_4 · Cited by 1
Sakstrup, C. (2020) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343320913092 · Cited by 1
Horizontal inequality and data challenges
Canelas, C., & Gisselquist, R. M. (2018) · Working Paper Series · doi:10.35188/unu-wider/2018/497-1 · Cited by 1
The Yemeni Conflicts: A Mismatch Theory Interpretation
Cambrini, R., & Zanotti, L. (2020) · Peace Economics Peace Science and Public Policy · doi:10.1515/peps-2020-0028 · Cited by 1
Surviving the War in Syria: Survival Strategies in a Time of Conflict
Schon, J. (2020) · Cited by 1
From grievances to civil war: The impact of geopolitics
Ahmed, F. Z. (2021) · The Review of International Organizations · doi:10.1007/s11558-021-09426-0 · Cited by 1
Persson, A. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198858218.013.28 · Cited by 1
Social Mobility and Horizontal Inequality
Funjika, P., & Gisselquist, R. M. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192896858.003.0016 · Cited by 1
Lane, M., Frederick, B., Kavanagh, J., Watts, S., Chandler, N., & Smith, M. (2022) · RAND Corporation eBooks · doi:10.7249/rr2995 · Cited by 1
Civil Wars: Towards an Evolution of a Field, 2010-2016
Newman, E. I. (2023) · Civil Wars · doi:10.1080/13698249.2023.2250193 · Cited by 1
Capital, Wages, and Structural Unemployment
Stiglitz, J. E., & Akerlof, G. A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799580.003.0030 · Cited by 1
Martin, M. E. (2013) · Bradford Scholars (University of Bradford) · Cited by 1
Economic inequality, democratization and civil conflict : Measuring the long-run effects
Flaten, R. D. (2012) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives · Cited by 1
Hillesund, S. (2013) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives · Cited by 1
Gangs of New York: Organized Crime as the Link between Inequality and CorruptionPreprint
Schwuchow, S. C. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2947142 · Cited by 1
Mai-Bornu, Z. L. (2017) · Cited by 1
Foundations of the Vanguard: The Origins of Leftist Rebel GroupsPreprint
Stewart, M. A. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3555174 · Cited by 1
Fighting Terrorism in Africa When Existing Terrorism Levels MatterPreprint
Asongu, S. A., Tchamyou, V. S., Asongu, N., & Tchamyou, N. P. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3493501 · Cited by 1
Wigmore-Shepherd, D. S. (2019) · Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) · Cited by 1
Subjective Well-being and Peaceful UprisingsPreprint
Witte, C., Burger, M., & Ianchovichina, E. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3256397 · Cited by 1
Dasandi, N. (2013) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 1
Does Violence Pay? The Effect of Ethnic Rebellion on Overcoming Political DeprivationPreprint
Koos, C. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2472869 · Cited by 1
Democratic Support, Protests, and Authoritarian Violence in Non-Democracies
Pisareva, D. (2021) · ANU Open Research (Australian National University) · doi:10.25911/eqrg-3w40 · Cited by 1
Inequality and Social Identity: Micro-Level Evidence Using a Measure of Perceived Economic PositionPreprint
Adera, A., & Tabakis, C. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3995036 · Cited by 2
Bartusevičius, H., & van Leeuwen, F. (2018) · SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/mcjyp · Cited by 1
Schon, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108909716.012 · Cited by 1
Dacrema, E. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74336-3_338-1 · Cited by 1
Ingelaere, B., Ndayiragije, R., & Verpoorten, M. (2022) · Working Paper Series · doi:10.35188/unu-wider/2022/275-1 · Cited by 1
Varieties of Onset: Heterogeneity and Relative Risks of Civil WarPreprint
Siberdt, B. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4515970 · Cited by 2
Bartusevičius, H., & Sakstrup, C. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/k3mdg · Cited by 1
Implications and Future Research
Liu, S. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197696705.003.0008 · Cited by 1
Who Wants To Share? Attitudes Towards Horizontal Redistribution Across the Globe
Stewart, F., Langer, A., & Kuppens, L. (2024) · Social Inclusion · doi:10.17645/si.8387 · Cited by 1
Supporting the technocracy of artificial intelligence: Data from a representative Spanish sample
Moreno‐Bella, E., Dono, M., & Moya, M. (2025) · Data in Brief · doi:10.1016/j.dib.2025.111637 · Cited by 1
Europeanization under Fire: Minority Rights and the limits of EU Norm Diffusion in Wartime UkrainePreprint
Daniels, L.-A., & Sanjaume, M. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5364776 · Cited by 1
The Politics of Exclusion: Explaining Anti-Immigration Attitudes in AfricaPreprint
Whitaker, B. E., & Giersch, J. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal
Rural Grievances, Landholding Inequality and Civil ConflictPreprint
Thomson, H. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2551186
Ruan, S. (2013) · DukeSpace (Duke University)
Religious Infusion and Intergroup Conflict: Results from the Global Group Relations ProjectPreprint
Warner, C. M., Neuberg, S. L., Mistler, S. A., Hill, E., & Berlin, A. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal
The inevitable clash? Inter-religious violence and local power-sharing in Nigeria
Vinson, L. T. (2013) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
Periphery versus Periphery: The Domestic Political Origins of Separatist WarPreprint
Lacina, B. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal
Ethnic Politics, Federalism and Anti-Regime Rebellion: An Alternate TheoryPreprint
Inman, M. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2480675
Divisive Riches: Resource Ownership, Economic Disparities, and Conflict in Sub-Saharan AfricaPreprint
Schneider, G., Kelle, F., & Wegenast, T. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2316223 · Cited by 1
GENDER AND THE POVERTY-CONFLICT TRAP
McGary, J. L. (2012) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona)
Periphery versus Periphery: The Stakes
Lacina, B. (2015)
Religious Conflict in India: does Inequality
Girard, V. (2014)
Peacemaking and Peacebuilding Through Opponent Non-economic and Economic Homogenization
Soldatos, G. T. (2015) · Munich Personal RePEc Archive (Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich)
Economic Development, Rebel Mobilization, and Civil War Onset
Holtermann, H. (2013) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives
Non-State Conflicts, Weak State Capacity and Regime Change
Bugge, H. (2014) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives
Pabón, . A. D. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2754022
Peace and Conflict in Inter-Group Relations
Koós, A. K. (2014) · doi:10.5040/9798216545835
Metadata
- Authors
- CEDERMAN, L.-E., WEIDMANN, N. B., & GLEDITSCH, K. S.
- Affiliations
- ETH Zurich (CH)
- Yale University (US)
- University of Essex (GB)
- Corresponding author
- CEDERMAN, LARS-ERIK
- WEIDMANN, NILS B.
- GLEDITSCH, KRISTIAN SKREDE
- Venue
- American Political Science Review
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2011-07-11
- Volume
- 105
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 478-495
- ISSN
- 0003-0554 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5943
- OpenAlex
- W2122757622
- Cited by
- 1,028
- References
- 99
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 117 · 2024: 79 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 53 · 2020: 126 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 67 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 80 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 185.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Political Science Review (publishedVersion)
- Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (acceptedVersion)
- reroDoc Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- ETH Zürich Research Collection
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (180441, 105511)
- European Science Foundation
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (105511, 116795)
- Norges Forskningsråd
- Economic and Social Research Council (RES-062-23-, ES/E007147/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › General Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Natural Resources and Economic Development
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
- Keywords
- horizontal inequality, ethnic conflict, ethnic groups, geocoded data, political grievances, economic grievances
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
