The DOI matches its Crossref record; 98 of the 99 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Horizontal Inequalities and Ethnonationalist Civil War: A Global Comparison
Open accessAbstract
Contemporary research on civil war has largely dismissed the role of political and economic grievances, focusing instead on opportunities for conflict. However, these strong claims rest on questionable theoretical and empirical grounds. Whereas scholars have examined primarily the relationship between individual inequality and conflict, we argue that horizontal inequalities between politically relevant ethnic groups and states at large can promote ethnonationalist conflict. Extending the empirical scope to the entire world, this article introduces a new spatial method that combines our newly geocoded data on ethnic groups’ settlement areas with spatial wealth estimates. Based on these methodological advances, we find that, in highly unequal societies, both rich and poor groups fight more often than those groups whose wealth lies closer to the country average. Our results remain robust to a number of alternative sample definitions and specifications.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Using EPR's geocoded data on ethnic settlement areas, Cederman, Weidmann and Gleditsch (2011) extend the study of political exclusion to economic inequality, in order to show that ethnic groups that are poorer and richer than the country's average income are more likely to stage rebellion.”
From Dynamics and Logics of Civil War (2017) · cites this paper as Cederman, Weidmann and Gleditsch (2011)
In the citing paper
“The resulting polarization might incentivize these individuals/groups to seize political power by force to redistribute wealth in their favor, thus increasing the likelihood of conflict (Cederman et al 2011, Guariso and Rogall 2017, Koubi 2017).”
From The impacts of climate change on violent conflict risk: a review of causal pathways (2024) · cites this paper as Cederman et al 2011
In the citing paper
“As Cederman et al. (2011, 481) argue, “Violations of norms of justice and equality will typically arouse feelings of anger and resentment among members of the disadvantaged group.””
From Conflict Recurrence and Postconflict Justice: Addressing Motivations and Opportunities for Sustainable Peace (2017) · cites this paper as Cederman et al. 2011
Citations
Cites
An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199269464.003.0005 · Cited by 12,701
The Social psychology of intergroup relations
Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1979) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 11,577
Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War
FEARON, J. D., & LAITIN, D. D. (2003) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055403000534 · Cited by 7,366
Greed and grievance in civil war
Collier, P. D. (2004) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/gpf064 · Cited by 6,295
States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China
Skocpol, T. (1979) · Cambridge University Press · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511815805 · Cited by 5,408
Kuper, L., & Horowitz, D. L. (1986) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2069338 · Cited by 4,891
Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy
Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2005) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511510809 · Cited by 4,810
From Mobilization to Revolution
Stearns, P. N., & Tilly, C. (1979) · The American Historical Review · doi:10.2307/1855671 · Cited by 4,583
From Mobilization to Revolution
Tilly, C. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315205021-5 · Cited by 4,010
Armed Conflict 1946-2001: A New Dataset
GLEDITSCH, N. P., WALLENSTEEN, P., ERIKSSON, M., SOLLENBERG, M., & STRAND, H. (2002) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343302039005007 · Cited by 3,846
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Turner, 1981, Intergroup Behaviour, 66
- Moore, 1966, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy
- Ross, 2005, Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis, 35
- Tilly, 1999, Durable Inequality
- Gamson, 1992, Talking Politics
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 801–900 of 1,000
Glawion, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623629.010
Identifying Ugandan Rebel Groups
Lewis, J. I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108855969.008
Fluid Ordering and Flexible Security
Glawion, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623629.007
King, K. L., & Meernik, J. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108236065.008
Lewis, J. I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108855969.012
Schon, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108909716.001
Stable Ordering and Predictable Security
Glawion, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623629.006
Kubota, Y. (2013) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137364098_1
Implications for Scholarship and Policy
Lewis, J. I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108855969.007
Glawion, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623629.008
Supplementary Statistical Analyses
Lewis, J. I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108855969.010
Klaus, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108764063.001
Glawion, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623629.011
Lewis, J. I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108855969.004
Schon, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108909716.008
National and Local Histories of Security
Glawion, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623629.003
Schon, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108909716.011
Introduction to the Survey and Survey Methodology
King, K. L., & Meernik, J. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108236065.001
A Theory of Rebel Group Formation
Lewis, J. I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108855969.002
HowWastaProvides Opportunity to Act Safely
Schon, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108909716.006
Klaus, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108764063.009
Promises and Perils of Globalization
Kaplan, L. C. (2019) · eDiss (Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) · doi:10.53846/goediss-7243
The Distribution of Income and Wealth within States Since the Beginning of the Twentieth Century
Beyleveld, A. D. (2022) · Brill | Nijhoff eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789004511750_003
Ulikhet, eksklusjon og borgerkrig
Buhaug, H., Cederman, L., & Gleditsch, K. S. (2016) · Politica · doi:10.7146/politica.v48i1.131414
Self-citationObservare (2016) · JANUS NET e-journal of International Relation · doi:10.26619/1647-7251.7.1
Han, E. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190688301.003.0009
Han, E. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190688301.003.0001
Roessler, P. G. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316809877.002
Avant, D., Chenoweth, E., Epstein, R., & Hendrix, C. S. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190056896.003.0011
Chenoweth, E., & Pinckney, J. C. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.96047-1
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0001
Ethnic Conflicts and Peace-Building
Aguilar, S. L. C. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-2898-5_46
Sekher, M., Awasthi, M., Thomas, A., Kumar, R., & Nayak, S. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-2898-5_152
Ahmad, Z. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108878739.004
Birnir, J. K., & Hultquist, A. S. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0209
Legitimitet og borgerkriges opståen: befolkningens oversete motiver
Møller, F. S. (2016) · Politica · doi:10.7146/politica.v48i1.131416
Glawion, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623629.012
Klaus, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108764063.015
Lewis, J. I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108855969.013
Assessment of the impact of ethnic economic inequality on terrorism threat
Новиков, А. В. (2022) · National Interests Priorities and Security · doi:10.24891/ni.18.5.848
Identity and support for policies towards Indigenous people: Evidence from Australia
Mavisakalyan, A., & Tarverdi, Y. (2022) · Working Paper Series · doi:10.35188/unu-wider/2022/186-0
Analysis of the impact of political isolation of ethnic groups on the growth of terrorism
Novikov, A. V. (2022) · Национальная безопасность / nota bene · doi:10.7256/2454-0668.2022.2.37946
On data and trends in horizontal inequality
Canelas, C. (2022) · Working Paper Series · doi:10.35188/unu-wider/2022/196-9
Fanning the Flames: Rainfall Shocks, Inter-Ethnic IncomePreprint
Panza, L., & Swee, E. L. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4129100
Internal Versus External Rent-Seeking with In-Group Inequality and Public Good ProvisionPreprint
Bakshi, D., & Dasgupta, I. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4106320
López–Uribe, M. D. P., & Torres, F. S. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4150992
Human Rights at Risk in the Era of Trump and American Decline
Regilme, S. S. (2022) · Rutgers University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv2v55jbm.10
Changing Perspectives on Inequality and Development
Stewart, F. (2022) · Palgrave Readers in Economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89265-4_3
Dacrema, E. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74319-6_338
(2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198722564.002.0009
(2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198722564.002.0004
(2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198722564.002.0008
(2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198722564.002.0003
(2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198722564.002.0007
(2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198722564.002.0005
Modern inequalities: a review of the literature
Kostov, L. (2023) · SEER · doi:10.5771/1435-2869-2023-1-81
A Farewell to Arms in the 21st Century: The Case of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front
Çolak, Y. (2023) · Siyasal Journal of Political Sciences · doi:10.26650/siyasal.2023.32.1249989
Cervi, A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-97417-6_124-1
Economic decline, ethnonationalism and civil war onset
Scarcelli, M. (2024) · Nations and Nationalism · doi:10.1111/nana.13002
What Do Extreme Poverty and Inequality Mean for Global Political Stability?
Islam, A. M., Silwal, A. R., & Saliola, F. (2024) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781032699028-31
Regional disparities of Immigration-related conflict risks: the case of Estonia
Ainsaar, M., Maasing, H., Kovaljov, A., & Nahkur, O. (2024) · Sustainable development · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1004710
Liu, S. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197696705.005.0003
Liu, S. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197696705.003.0003
Liu, S. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197696705.003.0007
Liu, S. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197696705.005.0002
Liu, S. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197696705.005.0001
Liu, S. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197696705.003.0001
Nation and Territory Before and After Abkhazia’s Secession
Γούμενος, Θ. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68846-6_239-1
de Soysa, I., Finseraas, H., & Vadlamannati, K. C. (2024) · Peace Economics Peace Science and Public Policy · doi:10.1515/peps-2023-0053
Ethnic Inequality and Economic Growth: Evidence from Harmonized Satellite DataPreprint
Gründler, K., & Link, A. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4783714
Jung, H.-R. (2024) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/00223433231221447
Dankenbring, M., Volg, I., & Ruhe, C. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/8qfd4
Han, E. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190688301.002.0006
Han, E. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190688301.002.0003
Supplementary Material for Latin American Analyses
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0005
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.002.0003
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.002.0006
Ethnic Parties in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0003
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0006
The EPR-ETH Data Set in Detail
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0001
Supplementary Material for Global-Level Analyses
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0004
Calculating Linguistic and Religious Segmentation
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0002
Coakley, J., & Todd, J. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841388.002.0009
Coakley, J., & Todd, J. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841388.002.0006
Coakley, J., & Todd, J. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841388.002.0007
Coakley, J., & Todd, J. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841388.002.0003
List of Appendices and Documents
Coakley, J., & Todd, J. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841388.002.0008
Metadata
- Authors
- CEDERMAN, L.-E., WEIDMANN, N. B., & GLEDITSCH, K. S.
- Affiliations
- ETH Zurich (CH)
- Yale University (US)
- University of Essex (GB)
- Corresponding author
- CEDERMAN, LARS-ERIK
- WEIDMANN, NILS B.
- GLEDITSCH, KRISTIAN SKREDE
- Venue
- American Political Science Review
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2011-07-11
- Volume
- 105
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 478-495
- ISSN
- 0003-0554 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5943
- OpenAlex
- W2122757622
- Cited by
- 1,028
- References
- 99
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 117 · 2024: 79 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 53 · 2020: 126 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 67 · 2016: 57 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 80 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 185.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Political Science Review (publishedVersion)
- Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (acceptedVersion)
- reroDoc Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- ETH Zürich Research Collection
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (180441, 105511)
- European Science Foundation
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (105511, 116795)
- Norges Forskningsråd
- Economic and Social Research Council (RES-062-23-, ES/E007147/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › General Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Natural Resources and Economic Development
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
- Keywords
- horizontal inequality, ethnic conflict, ethnic groups, geocoded data, political grievances, economic grievances
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
