Altering the temporal distribution of energy intake with isoenergetically dense foods given as snacks does not affect total daily energy intake in normal-weight men
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The objectives of the present study were to examine the effects of (1) ingesting mandatory snacks v. no snacks and (2) the composition of isoenergetically-dense snacks high in protein, fat or carbohydrate, on food intake and energy intake (EI) in eight men with ad libitum access to a diet of fixed composition. Subjects were each studied four times in a 9 d protocol per treatment. On days 1–2, subjects were given a medium-fat maintenance diet estimated at 1·6 × resting metabolic rate (RMR). On days 3–9, subjects consumed three mandatory isoenergetic, isoenergetically dense (380 kJ/100 g) snacks at fixed time intervals (11.30, 15.30 and 19.30 hours). Total snack intake comprised 30 % of the subjects' estimated daily energy requirements. The treatments were high protein (HP), high carbohydrate (HC), high fat (HF) and no snack (NS). The order was randomized across subjects in a counterbalanced, Latin-square design. During the remainder of the day, subjects had ad libitum (meal size and frequency) access to a covertly manipulated medium-fat diet of fixed composition (fat: carbohydrate: protein, 40:47:13 by energy), energy density 550 kJ/100 g. All foods eaten were investigator-weighed before ingestion and left-overs were weighed after ingestion. Subjective hunger and satiety feelings were tracked hourly during waking hours using visual analogue scales. Ad libitum EI amounted to 13·9 MJ/d on the NS treatment compared with 11·7, 11·7 and 12·2 MJ/d on the HP, HC and HF diets respectively (F(3,21) 5·35; P = 0·007, sed 0·66). Total EI values were not significantly different at 14·6, 14·5, 15·0 and 14·2 MJ/d respectively. Snack composition did not differentially affect total daily food intake or EI. Average daily hunger was unaffected by the composition of the snacks. Only at 12.00 hours did subjects feel significantly more hungry during the NS condition, relative to the other dietary treatments (F(3,18) 4·42; P = 0·017). Body weight was unaffected by dietary treatment. In conclusion, snacking per se led to compensatory adjustments in feeding behaviour in lean men. Snack composition (with energy density controlled) did not affect the amount eaten of a diet of fixed composition. Results may differ in real life where subjects can alter both composition and amount of food they eat and energy density is not controlled.
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The finding that energy intake was higher with 9 meals/d than with 3 meals/d is in agreement with one earlier study but not with other studies.
“This is in agreement with the findings of one earlier study (8), but not with those of other studies (9 -12).”
From Beneficial metabolic effects of regular meal frequency on dietary thermogenesis, insulin sensitivity, and fasting lipid profiles in healthy obese women1–3 (2005) · cites this paper as [12]
The Study design section compares three mandatory snacks with a no-snack condition, not nine meals per day with three. The Abstract and the section “Effect of snack v. no-snack schedule on feeding behaviour” report no significant difference in total daily energy intake between those conditions, contrary to the claimed agreement with higher intake at greater eating frequency. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredResults of studies evaluating the effect of meal frequency on energy intake were inconclusive.
“The results of studies evaluating the effect of meal frequency on energy intake (EI) were inconclusive (2, 4, 8 -13).”
From Beneficial metabolic effects of regular meal frequency on dietary thermogenesis, insulin sensitivity, and fasting lipid profiles in healthy obese women1–3 (2005) · cites this paper as [12]
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- Authors
- Johnstone, A. M., Shannon, E., Whybrow, S., Reid, C. A., & Stubbs, R. J.
- Affiliations
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Stubbs, R. J.
- Venue
- British Journal of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2000-01
- Volume
- 83
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 7-14
- ISSN
- 0007-1145 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-2662
- OpenAlex
- W1950225601
- Cited by
- 58
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2021: 3 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 0.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- British Journal Of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Dietary Effects on Health
- Keywords
- energy intake, high-protein diet, high-fat diet, high-carbohydrate diet, hunger, satiety, ad libitum food intake, energy density, weight maintenance, meal timing
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Analysis of Variance, Appetite, Body Weight, Energy Intake, Diet, Dietary Carbohydrates, Dietary Fats, Dietary Proteins, Eating, Humans, Hunger, Male
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