The influence of creatine supplementation on the cognitive functioning of vegetarians and omnivores
Open accessAbstract
Creatine when combined with P forms phosphocreatine that acts as a reserve of high-energy phosphate. Creatine is found mostly in meat, fish and other animal products, and the levels of muscle creatine are known to be lower in vegetarians. Creatine supplementation influences brain functioning as indicated by imaging studies and the measurement of oxygenated Hb. Given the key role played by creatine in the provision of energy, the influence of its supplementation on cognitive functioning was examined, contrasting the effect in omnivores and vegetarians. Young adult females ( n 128) were separated into those who were and were not vegetarian. Randomly and under a double-blind procedure, subjects consumed either a placebo or 20 g of creatine supplement for 5 d. Creatine supplementation did not influence measures of verbal fluency and vigilance. However, in vegetarians rather than in those who consume meat, creatine supplementation resulted in better memory. Irrespective of dietary style, the supplementation of creatine decreased the variability in the responses to a choice reaction-time task.
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Benefits have been reported in men and women, although the majority of studies have been conducted on men and some studies suggest that women may not see as much gain in strength and/or muscle mass during training in response to creatine supplementation.
“Benefits have been reported in men and women, although the majority of studies have been conducted on men and some studies suggest that women may not see as much gain in strength and/or muscle mass during training in response to creatine supplementation”
From International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine (2017) · cites this paper as [20]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredVegetarians have lower intramuscular creatine stores (90-110 mmol/kg dry muscle) and may observe greater gains in muscle creatine content from creatine supplementation.
“Vegetarians have been reported to have lower intramuscular creatine stores (90–110 mmol/kg of dry muscle) and therefore may observe greater gains in muscle creatine content from creatine supplementation”
From International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine (2017) · cites this paper as [20]
The passage labeled Abstract says vegetarians have lower muscle creatine levels and reports that levels rose more in vegetarians than omnivores after supplementation. It does not give the claimed baseline range of 90–110 mmol/kg dry muscle. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredErgogenic benefits of creatine have been reported in men and women from children to elderly populations, although the majority of studies have been conducted on men.
“Ergogenic benefits have been reported in men and women from children to elderly populations, although the majority of studies have been conducted on men [74,111,113,124,125,126,127,128].”
From Creatine in health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [127]
Creatine supplementation enhances cognitive function particularly in older populations.
“enhance cognitive function particularly in older populations [3,27,28,69,94,127,131,159,163,164,165,166,167,168];”
From Creatine in health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [127]
Creatine supplementation attenuates mental fatigue and/or can improve cognition, executive function, and/or memory.
“Several studies have found that creatine supplementation attenuates mental fatigue [27,28,127] and/or can improve cognition, executive function, and/or memory [28,94,127,168,177,179].”
From Creatine in health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [127]
Creatine supplementation may increase brain creatine content and/or support cognitive function, particularly as one ages.
“While more research is needed and not all studies show benefit [127,167], it can be reasonably concluded based on current scientific evidence that creatine supplementation may increase brain creatine content and/or support cognitive function, particularly as one ages.”
From Creatine in health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [127]
Benton and Donohoe found that creatine supplementation benefited memory only for vegetarians but not omnivores.
“Another study comparing memory improvement under creatine supplementation in omnivores and vegetarians found that creatine supplementation benefited memory only for vegetarians but not omnivores [23].”
From The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance—a randomised controlled study (2023) · cites this paper as [23]
Our negative finding for the verbal fluency task is in line with the only other study using the same task.
“Our negative finding for the verbal fluency task is in line with the only other study using the same task [23].”
From The effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive performance—a randomised controlled study (2023) · cites this paper as [23]
Risk of bias was scored as high in 6 RCTs because information about how randomization was applied was lacking.
“Risk of bias was scored as high in 6 RCTs because information about how randomization was applied was lacking.22,24,25,27,28,30”
From Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
In 4 RCTs, some concerns were raised because of the absence of detail regarding treatment allocation.
“In 4 RCTs, some concerns were raised because of the absence of detail regarding treatment allocation.22,24,30,34”
From Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
In 1 RCT, some concern was recorded because the number of participants who dropped out and the reasons for withdrawing were poorly defined.
“In 1 RCT, some concern was recorded because the number of participants who dropped out and the reasons for withdrawing were poorly defined.24”
From Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
Benton and Donohoe found better memory following creatine supplementation (20 g/d for 5 days) in vegetarians compared with meat eaters.
“In a direct comparison of omnivores and vegetarians, Benton and Donohoe24 found better memory following creatine supplementation (20 g/d for 5 days) in vegetarians compared with meat eaters.”
From Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
8 RCTs had a study protocol that was not prespecified, resulting in some concerns.
“Finally, 8 RCTs had a study protocol that was not prespecified, resulting in some concerns.22,24,25,27,28,30,34,36”
From Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
Most of the included studies did not assess creatine intake from dietary consumption, which may have altered the findings.
“Furthermore, most of the included studies did not assess creatine intake from dietary consumption, which may have altered the findings.24”
From Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
A previous RCT found that word recall response declined following creatine supplementation (20 g/d for 5 days) in meat-eaters compared with vegan and vegetarian participants, and post-supplementation comparisons revealed significantly greater memory in vegetarians compared with omnivores.
“A previous RCT found that word recall response declined following creatine supplementation (20 g/d of creatine for 5 days) in meat-eaters compared with vegan and vegetarian participants, and post-supplementation comparisons revealed a significantly greater memory in vegetarians compared with omnivores.24”
From Effects of creatine supplementation on memory in healthy individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
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- Authors
- Benton, D., & Donohoe, R.
- Affiliations
- Swansea University (GB)
- London Ambulance Service NHS Trust (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Benton, David
- ORCID
- Benton, David
- Venue
- British Journal of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2010-12-01
- Volume
- 105
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1100-1105
- ISSN
- 0007-1145 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-2662
- OpenAlex
- W2169352471
- Cited by
- 101
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 0.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- British Journal Of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- amber - ambulance research repository (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Biochemical effects in animals
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Keywords
- creatine supplementation, vegetarians, omnivores, cognitive function, memory, verbal fluency, sustained attention, reaction time variability, dietary protein, brain energy metabolism, high-energy phosphates
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Arousal, Cognition, Creatine, Double-Blind Method, Energy Metabolism, Female, Humans, Memory, Reaction Time, Diet, Vegetarian, Verbal Behavior, Dietary Supplements, Young Adult
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