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Randomized controlled trial of computerized cognitive behavioural therapy for depressive symptoms: effectiveness and costs of a workplace intervention
Open accessAbstract
Background: Depression and anxiety are major causes of absence from work and underperformance in the workplace. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can be effective in treating such problems and online versions offer many practical advantages. The aim of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of a computerized CBT intervention (MoodGYM) in a workplace context. Method: The study was a phase III two-arm, parallel randomized controlled trial whose main outcome was total score on the Work and Social Adjustment Scale (WSAS). Depression, anxiety, psychological functioning, costs and acceptability of the online process were also measured. Most data were collected online for 637 participants at baseline, 359 at 6 weeks marking the end of the intervention and 251 participants at 12 weeks post-baseline. Results: In both experimental and control groups depression scores improved over 6 weeks but attrition was high. There was no evidence for a difference in the average treatment effect of MoodGYM on the WSAS, nor for a difference in any of the secondary outcomes. Conclusions: This study found no evidence that MoodGYM was superior to informational websites in terms of psychological outcomes or service use, although improvement to subthreshold levels of depression was seen in nearly half the patients in both groups.
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“but this evidence does not translate to online CBT-based stress management programmes delivered within a workplace context”
In the citing paper
“The large improvements on depressive symptoms in the CAU group were also found in 2 studies with comparable target groups of non-sick-listed employees [28,66].”
From Long-Term Results of a Web-Based Guided Self-Help Intervention for Employees With Depressive Symptoms: Randomized Controlled Trial (2014) · cites this paper as [66]
In the citing paper
“Both studies did not report significant effects in favor of the intervention at follow-up (either 3 or 6 months) and showed the same pattern of improvement as was found in this study: substantial improvements between baseline and posttreatment which sustained at follow-up in both groups.”
From Long-Term Results of a Web-Based Guided Self-Help Intervention for Employees With Depressive Symptoms: Randomized Controlled Trial (2014) · cites this paper as [66]
In the citing paper
“One study of web-based CBT52) reported no significant improvement compared with controls on scores of health, quality of life, or subjective work-related performance.”
From Web-based interventions for the management of stress in the workplace: Focus, form, and efficacy (2017) · cites this paper as [52]
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“Statistical analysis shows improvement in both arms but no difference between the experimental and attentional control groups [11].”
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“…that assessed life/work functioning (using the same measure reported here [WSAS]) found a nonsignificant difference as compared to the control [62], a significant improvement for iCBT+treatment as usual but not in iCBT compared to the control (effect sizes not provided) [52], and an effect…”
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“Nine of the 13 trials reported significant improvement of depression and anxiety symptoms with iCBT compared to control groups, which included waitlist [27–32], treatment as usual [28,33–37], psychoeducation [38], and ‘‘attention placebo,” which consisted of weekly contact with a lay interviewer to discuss lifestyle f…”
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“…in the lower zone of the wide range of values reported for guided interventions (ie, €19,616 [54] to €157,900 [55]; approximately US $19,616 and $189,825, respectively) and below that of unguided interventions (ie, €40,412 [56] to €178,700 [57]; approximately US $48,583 and $214,831, respectively).”
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“Note that the unguided studies included in the meta-analyses often involved initial contact with humans for diagnostic interviews [24-29], weekly telephone contact support [30,31], or treatment as usual [16,32].”
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“Two recent trials in the UK did not find incremental effects of iCBT compared to treatment as usual (Gilbody et al., 2015; Phillips et al., 2014); suboptimal therapist support and high participant attrition was notable.”
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“There was, however, an exception to this, whereby an RCT evaluating Moodgym was reviewed despite there being a meta-analysis available for this program, as the RCT included participants with stroke [56].”
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Omylinska‐Thurston, J., Aithal, S., Liverpool, S., Clark, R. D., Moula, Z., Wood, J., Viliardos, L., Rodríguez-Dorans, E., Farish-Edwards, F., Parsons, A. S., et al. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/55500 · Cited by 15
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Xiong, J., Wen, J. L., Pei, G., Han, X., & He, D. Q. (2022) · International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/10803548.2022.2043647 · Cited by 12
“, 2014 [55] UK A total of 355 participants was required Depression(PHQ-9) RCT Baseline 6 weeks 12 weeks MoodGYM Active control MoodGYM is a freely available course developed at Australia National University (ANU) that allows participants to proceed at their own pace over five, usually taken weekly”
Rajeshkumar, L., Mishkind, M. C., Coleman, J. J., Pahwa, M., LaPreze, D., Solenske, S., & Wright, J. H. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Practice · doi:10.1097/pra.0000000000000815 · Cited by 12
Effectiveness of Workplace Interventions for Depression in Asia: A Meta-Analysis
Lau, R. W., & Mak, W. (2017) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244017710293 · Cited by 11
Cunningham, J. A., Godinho, A., Hendershot, C. S., KAY‐LAMBKIN, F. J., Neighbors, C., Griffiths, K. M., & Schell, C. (2021) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2021.100477 · Cited by 10
“Participants in the M-only group were provided access to MoodGYM, a popular automated online intervention for depression with multiple trials demonstrating its efficacy (Bennett et al., 2010; Calear et al., 2009; Christensen et al., 2004; Griffiths et al., 2004; Hickie et al., 2010; Hoifodt et al., 2013; Mackinnon et…”
MethodKaylor‐Hughes, C., Rawsthorne, M., Coulson, N., Simpson, S., Simons, L., Guo, B., James, M., Moran, P., Simpson, J., Hollis, C. P., et al. (2017) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/resprot.8061 · Cited by 10
“Assuming a 50% loss to follow-up, a total of 1352 participants are required for the RCT [33,34] but typically BWW would be expected to enroll 2200 people in a county the size of Nottinghamshire if the uptake of BWW was consistent with the general pattern seen in similar parts of the country.”
InfluentialSelf-citationCunningham, J. A., Hendershot, C. S., KAY‐LAMBKIN, F. J., Neighbors, C., Griffiths, K. M., Bennett, K., Bennett, A., Godinho, A., & Schell, C. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022412 · Cited by 11
Depression in the workplace: screening and treatment
Neto, J. D., Myung, E., Murta, G. A., Vieira, A., de Lima, P. R. G., Lessa, L. A., & Bernardo, W. M. (2019) · Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira · doi:10.1590/1806-9282.65.3.295 · Cited by 12
Skaczkowski, G., van der Kruk, S., Loxton, S., Hughes-Barton, D., Howell, C., Turnbull, D., Jensen, N., Smout, M., & Gunn, K. (2022) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/31018 · Cited by 9
“The quality of this evidence is high, with a number of randomized controlled trials (RCTs; eg, the studies by McDermott et al [10], Powell et al [12], and Kiropoulos et al [13]) and systematic reviews (eg, the studies by Renton et al [15] and Ashford et al [16]) illustrating their value.”
BackgroundInfluentialCarolan, S., Harris, P. R., Greenwood, K., & Cavanagh, K. (2016) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-016-1733-2 · Cited by 9
Kouvonen, A. M., Mänty, M., Harkko, J., Sumanen, H., Konttinen, H. M., Lahti, J., Pietiläinen, O. P. H., Blomgren, J., Tuovinen, E., Ketonen, E.-L., et al. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-032119 · Cited by 9
Armaou, M., Araviaki, E., Dutta, S., Konstantinidis, S. T., & Blake, H. (2022) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe12100102 · Cited by 14
“However, just five studies (3 RCTs and 2 quasi-experimental studies) [63,65,67,71,91] demonstrated a lower proportion of bias than the rest.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialGutiérrez, G., Gizzarelli, T., Moghimi, E., Vázquez, G. H., & Alavi, N. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.09.005 · Cited by 8
Koh, Z. H., Serbetci, D., Skues, J., & Murray, G. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/59351 · Cited by 6
Wu, J., Tsai, Y.-Y., Chen, Y.-J., Hsiao, F., Hsu, C., Lin, K., & Liao, L. (2024) · Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing · doi:10.1007/s11517-024-03209-6 · Cited by 9
“Clinical research has shown that iCBT significantly improves depression [103–105], anxiety [106, 107], panic disorder [108], and obsessive–compulsive symptoms [109].”
Shiri, R., Varje, P., & Toppinen‐Tanner, S. (2025) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2025.112140 · Cited by 6
Wood, M. J. A., Wilson, H. M., & Parry, S. L. (2021) · Medicine Access Point of Care · doi:10.1177/23992026211018087 · Cited by 6
Peeters, S. B., Hilgersom, M., van Krugten, F. C. W., Olaya, B., Haro, J. M., Feltz-Cornelis, C. M. V. D., & Roijen, L. H. (2024) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2024.2390371 · Cited by 5
Patel, K., Moukhtarian, T. R., Russell, S., Daly, G. B. J., Walasek, L., Tang, N. K. Y., Toro, C. T., & Meyer, C. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-060545 · Cited by 7
Psychological workplace interventions to prevent major depression: A model-based economic evaluation
Le, L. K., Lee, Y. Y., Engel, L., Lal, A., & Mihalopoulos, C. (2021) · Mental Health & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.mhp.2021.200209 · Cited by 5
Elvira, A. C., Santacreu, M., Giráldez, C. A. M., & Shih, P. (2021) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2571 · Cited by 4
Moukhtarian, T. R., Fletcher, S., Walasek, L., Kershaw, C., Patel, K., Hurley-Wallace, A. L., Russell, S., Daly, G. B. J., Tang, N. K. Y., Toro, C. T., et al. (2024) · BMC Digital Health · doi:10.1186/s44247-024-00114-8 · Cited by 3
“Implementation of CBT and digital CBT (dCBT) in workplace settings can improve mental health, and reduce incidence of clinical levels of depressive and anxious disorders [12, 13].”
BackgroundIm, J., Oh, B.-C., Song, H.-J., Choi, J., Yeo, D. H., & Lee, E. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/70248 · Cited by 2
“DHIs often exhibited variability in cost definitions and classifications, with intervention costs being frequently undefined or excluded [25,29,33,45,46].”
The Use of Technology to Augment Clinical Care in Depression and Anxiety Disorders: An Evidence Map
Maher, A. R., Apaydin, E. A., Raaen, L. B., Motala, A., Shanman, R., & Hempel, S. (2019) · RAND Corporation eBooks · doi:10.7249/rr2177 · Cited by 2
“…Oromendia et al., 2016; Orr and Moscovitch, 2010; Pallavicini et al., 2009; Paxling et al., 2011; Perini, Titov, and Andrews, 2009; Pham et al., 2016; Phillips et al., 2014; Pictet, Jermann, and Ceschi, 2016; Piette et al., 2011; Pinto et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2013; Pots et al., 2016;…”
BackgroundHow Online Counselling Is Utilised, Evaluated, and Received
Agathokleous, G., & Taiwo, A. O. (2021) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7991-6.ch011 · Cited by 2
Schure, M. B., McCrory, B., Greist, J. H., & Weissman, R. S. (2022) · Discover Psychology · doi:10.1007/s44202-022-00030-w · Cited by 2
A qualitative study investigating fatigue among Indonesian freight-train drivers
Auliani, S., Az-Zahra, H. F., Nursagita, C., Soetisna, H. R., Iridiastadi, H., & Budiawan, W. (2024) · Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.trip.2024.101286 · Cited by 2
Wang, B., Shen, S., Lok, K. Y. W., Lin, J., & Smith, R. D. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-07459-y · Cited by 2
“Several studies have assessed the cost-effectiveness of screening and CBT for a wide range of conditions [15–17].”
Chatterton, M. L., Lee, Y. Y., Berk, L., Mohebbi, M., Berk, M., Suppes, T. M., Lauder, S., & Mihalopoulos, C. (2022) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/36496 · Cited by 1
Wright, J. H., Chan, S. R., & Mishkind, M. C. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-11984-2_9 · Cited by 1
Balon, R. (2015) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000439224 · Cited by 1
Ghosh, A., Cherian, R. J., Wagle, S., Sharma, P., Kannan, K. R., Bajpai, A., & Gupta, N. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.11.24.21266799 · Cited by 1
“, 79 2007), weekly telephone contact support (Christensen et al., 2004; Phillips et al., 2014), or 80 treatment-as-usual (Gilbody et al.”
BackgroundImamura, K., Kawakami, N., & Shimazu, A. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44400-0_14
Schure, M. B., McCrory, B., Greist, J. H., & Weissman, R. S. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-965880/v1
“Four trials assessing daily functioning/disability found either no signi cant group differences [45, 49] or a moderate effect size [46, 50].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Phillips, R., Schneider, J., Molosankwe, I., Leese, M., Foroushani, P. S., Grime, P., McCrone, P., Morriss, R., & Thornicroft, G.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- University of Nottingham (GB)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Schneider, J.
- Venue
- Psychological Medicine
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2013-06-24
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 741-752
- ISSN
- 0033-2917 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8978
- PMC
- PMC3898729
- OpenAlex
- W2141180159
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 7.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (acceptedVersion)
- Nottingham ePrints (University of Nottingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NF-SI-0611-10053, MET-08-08-101)
- British Occupational Health Research Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Workplace Health and Well-being
- Keywords
- MoodGYM, work-related depression, depressive symptoms, online intervention, Work and Social Adjustment Scale, treatment effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, informational websites, attrition, subthreshold depression, psychological functioning, anxiety, service utilization
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Costs and Cost Analysis, Depression, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Patient Education as Topic, Social Adjustment, Stress, Psychological, Reproducibility of Results, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Occupational Health, Treatment Outcome, Workplace, Internet
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