Distinct neuropsychological profiles within ADHD: A latent class analysis of cognitive control, reward sensitivity and timing
Open accessAbstract
Background: Multiple pathway models of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) suggest that this disorder is the behavioural expression of dysfunction in one of several separable brain systems. One such model focuses on the brain systems underlying cognitive control, timing and reward sensitivity. It predicts separable subgroups among individuals with ADHD, with performance deficits in only one of these domains. We used latent class analysis (LCA) to identify subgroups of individuals with ADHD based on their overall pattern of neuropsychological performance, rather than grouping them based on cut-off criteria. We hypothesized that we would find separable subgroups with deficits in cognitive control, timing and reward sensitivity respectively. Method: Ninety-six subjects with ADHD (of any subtype) and 121 typically developing controls performed a battery assessing cognitive control, timing and reward sensitivity. LCA was used to identify subgroups of individuals with ADHD with a distinct neuropsychological profile. A similar analysis was performed for controls. Results: Three subgroups represented 87% of subjects with ADHD. Two of our three hypothesized subgroups were identified, with poor cognitive control and timing. Two of the ADHD subgroups had similar profiles to control subgroups, whereas one subgroup had no equivalent in controls. Conclusions: Our findings support multiple pathway models of ADHD, as we were able to define separable subgroups with differing cognitive profiles. Furthermore, we found both quantitative and qualitative differences from controls, suggesting that ADHD may represent both categorical and dimensional differences. These results show that by addressing heterogeneity in ADHD, we can identify more homogeneous subsets of individuals to further investigate.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In clustering, some participants may not clearly belong to any class, or some classes may become unmanageably small.
“2) some participants may not clearly belong to any class, or some classes may become unmanageably small (8)”
From Understanding heterogeneity in clinical cohorts using normative models: Beyond case-control studies (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
A key feature of our approach that differentiates it from other approaches to studying heterogeneity in clinical populations is the primary focus on mapping variation across the cohort.
“A key feature of our approach that differentiates it from other approaches to studying heterogeneity in clinical populations (7, 8) is the primary focus on mapping variation across the cohort.”
From Understanding heterogeneity in clinical cohorts using normative models: Beyond case-control studies (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
Cites
(1998) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · Cited by 19,139 · see citing works
The Endophenotype Concept in Psychiatry: Etymology and Strategic Intentions
Gottesman, I. I., & Gould, T. D. (2003) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.4.636 · Cited by 5,615 · see citing works
SHAFFER, D., FISHER, P., LUCAS, C. P., DULCAN, M. K., & SCHWAB-STONE, M. E. (2000) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-200001000-00014 · Cited by 3,505 · see citing works
Anticipation of Increasing Monetary Reward Selectively Recruits Nucleus Accumbens
Knutson, B., Adams, C. M., Fong, G. W., & Hommer, D. (2001) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.21-16-j0002.2001 · Cited by 2,244 · see citing works
Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes
Castellanos, F. X., & Tannock, R. (2002) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn896 · Cited by 1,827 · see citing works
Imaging the developing brain: what have we learned about cognitive development?
CASEY, B., TOTTENHAM, N., LISTON, C., & DURSTON, S. (2005) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.01.011 · Cited by 1,556 · see citing works
Self-citationThe SAGE Handbook of Quantitative Methodology for the Social Sciences
Kaplan, D. (2004) · doi:10.4135/9781412986311 · Cited by 1,454 · see citing works
Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD: a meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies
Cortese, S., Kelly, C., Chabernaud, C., Proal, E., Di Martino, A., Milham, M. P., & Castellanos, F. X. (2012) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11101521 · Cited by 1,067 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This ties in with a recent meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies (Cortese et al. 2012) that found a wide variety of brain systems to be involved in ADHD.”
ResultSonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.09.008 · Cited by 962 · see citing works
Psychological heterogeneity in AD/HD—a dual pathway model of behaviour and cognition
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2002) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0166-4328(01)00432-6 · Cited by 901 · see citing works
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., & Castellanos, F. X. (2007) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.02.005 · Cited by 890 · see citing works
Nigg, J. T., Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.025 · Cited by 886 · see citing works
Vermunt, J. K., & Magidson, J. (2005) · Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) · Cited by 680 · see citing works
NIGG, J. T., & CASEY, B. J. (2005) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579405050376 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
Sergeant, J. A. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.09.010 · Cited by 589 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This particular performance profile is in keeping with models that emphasize bottom-up intrusions of the default mode network into task-specific processing in ADHD (Sonuga-Barke & Castellanos, 2007) and with models of top-down deficits in state-regulation in ADHD (Sergeant, 2005).”
MethodBarkley, R. A. (1997) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.121.1.65 · Cited by 580 · see citing works
Sonuga-Barke, E., Bitsakou, P., & Thompson, M. (2010) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2009.12.018 · Cited by 504 · see citing works
Scheres, A., Milham, M. P., Knutson, B., & Castellanos, F. X. (2007) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.04.042 · Cited by 499 · see citing works
Tripp, G., & Wickens, J. R. (2009) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2009.07.026 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
Fair, D. A., Bathula, D., Nikolas, M. A., & Nigg, J. T. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1115365109 · Cited by 464 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Building on a multiple-pathway hypothesis, recent studies have found several subgroups with varying neuropsychological profiles in ADHD (Sonuga-Barke et al. 2010; de Zeeuw et al. 2012; Fair et al. 2012).”
ResultThe genetics of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults, a review
on behalf of the International Multicentre persistent ADHD CollaboraTion (IMpACT), Franke, B., Faraone, S. V., Asherson, P., Buitelaar, J., Bau, C. H. D., Ramos-Quiroga, J. A., Mick, E., Grevet, E. H., Johansson, S., et al. (2012) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2011.138 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., & Kofler, M. J. (2007) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9131-6 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Coghill, D., & Sonuga‐Barke, E. J. S. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02511.x · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Weber, W. J., & Russell, R. L. (1998) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199802000-00011 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Noreika, V., Falter, C. M., & Rubia, K. (2013) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.09.036 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Luman, M., Tripp, G., & Scheres, A. (2010) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.021 · Cited by 335 · cited 1× · see citing works
“We therefore focus on the anticipation of reward, as opposed to the evaluation of reward outcome (for an comprehensive review see Luman et al. 2010).”
BackgroundReward anticipation and outcomes in adult males with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Ströhle, A., Stoy, M., Wrase, J., Schwarzer, S., Schlagenhauf, F., Huss, M., Hein, J., Nedderhut, A., Neumann, B., Gregor, A., et al. (2008) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.09.044 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
van der Meer, J. M. J., Oerlemans, A. M., van Steijn, D. J., Lappenschaar, M. G. A., de Sonneville, L. M. J., Buitelaar, J. K., & Rommelse, N. N. J. (2012) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.024 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Temporal information processing in ADHD: Findings to date and new methods
Toplak, M. E., Dockstader, C., & Tannock, R. (2006) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2005.09.018 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
A Review of Co-Morbid Depression in Pediatric ADHD: Etiologies, Phenomenology, and Treatment
Daviss, W. B. (2008) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1089/cap.2008.032 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Durston, S., van Belle, J., & de Zeeuw, P. (2011) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.037 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Self-citationWilliams, L. M., Hermens, D. F., Palmer, D., Kohn, M., Clarke, S., Keage, H., Clark, C. R., & Gordon, E. (2008) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.11.022 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Durston, S., Davidson, M. C., Mulder, M., Spicer, J., Galván, A., Tottenham, N., Scheres, A., Castellanos, F. X., van Engeland, H., & Casey, B. J. (2007) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01754.x · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Self-citationMulder, M., Baeyens, D., Davidson, M. C., Casey, B. J., van den Ban, E. F., van Engeland, H., & Durston, S. (2008) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31815a56dc · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citationDeficits in Cognitive Control, Timing and Reward Sensitivity Appear to be Dissociable in ADHD
de Zeeuw, P., Weusten, J., van Dijk, S., van Belle, J., & Durston, S. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051416 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationDurston, S. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.02.071 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationLi, J. J., & Lee, S. S. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02563.x · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Functional connectivity between cognitive control regions is sensitive to familial risk for ADHD
Mulder, M., van Belle, J., van Engeland, H., & Durston, S. (2010) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.21141 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationLine bisection error predicts the presence and severity of neglect dyslexia in paragraph reading
Reinhart, S., Wagner, P., Schulz, A., Keller, I., & Kerkhoff, G. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.10.026 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 40 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Understanding heterogeneity in clinical cohorts using normative models: Beyond case-control studies
Marquand, A. F., Rezek, I., Buitelaar, J., & Beckmann, C. F. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.12.023 · Cited by 683 · see citing works
ADHD: Current Concepts and Treatments in Children and Adolescents
Drechsler, R., Brem, S., Brandeis, D., Grünblatt, E., Berger, G. E., & Walitza, S. (2020) · Neuropediatrics · doi:10.1055/s-0040-1701658 · Cited by 447 · see citing works
Bora, E., & Pantelis, C. (2015) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715002573 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Marquand, A. F., Wolfers, T., Mennes, M., Buitelaar, J. K., & Beckmann, C. F. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.04.002 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Grisanzio, K. A., Goldstein‐Piekarski, A. N., Wang, M. Y., Ahmed, A. P. R., Samara, Z., & Williams, L. M. (2017) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.3951 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Towards a brain‐based predictome of mental illness
Rashid, B., & Calhoun, V. D. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25013 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Friedman, L. A., & Rapoport, J. L. (2014) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2014.11.007 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Pulini, A. A., Kerr, W. T., Loo, S. K., & Lenartowicz, A. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2018.06.003 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Karalunas, S. L., & Nigg, J. T. (2020) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.11.002 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Toward a revised nosology for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder heterogeneity
Nigg, J. T., Karalunas, S. L., Feczko, E., & Fair, D. A. (2020) · Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.02.005 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Toward Precision Medicine in ADHD
Buitelaar, J. K., Bölte, S., Brandeis, D., Caye, A., Christmann, N., Cortese, S., Coghill, D., Faraone, S. V., Franke, B., Gleitz, M., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2022.900981 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“Several approaches to stratification of ADHD with the aim of producing more homogenous neurocognitive subgroups have been described ADHD (Fair et al., 2012; Coghill et al., 2014; van Hulst et al., 2015; Leikauf et al., 2017; Mostert et al., 2018).”
MethodThe definition and measurement of heterogeneity
Nunes, A., Trappenberg, T. P., & Alda, M. (2020) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-00986-0 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Zhang, W., Sweeney, J. A., Bishop, J. R., Gong, Q., & Lui, S. (2023) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-023-00019-x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Progress in psychoradiology, the clinical application of psychiatric neuroimaging
Huang, X., Gong, Q., Sweeney, J. A., & Biswal, B. B. (2019) · British Journal of Radiology · doi:10.1259/bjr.20181000 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Mostert, J. C., Hoogman, M., Onnink, A. M. H., van Rooij, D., von Rhein, D. T., van Hulzen, K. J. E., Dammers, J. T., Kan, C. C., Buitelaar, J. K., Norris, D. G., et al. (2015) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054715602332 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Other studies have used latent class analysis (LCA) to answer similar questions (e.g., van Hulst et al., 2015), which provides a similar type of output (class membership).”
BackgroundResultPimenta, M. G., Brown, T., Arns, M., & Enriquez‐Geppert, S. (2021) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s251547 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Shaw, P., Ishii‐Takahashi, A., Park, M. T. M., Devenyi, G. A., Zibman, C., Kasparek, S. W., Sudre, G. P., Mangalmurti, A., Hoogman, M., Tiemeier, H. W., et al. (2018) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12920 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationvan Hulst, B. M., de Zeeuw, P., Bos, D. J., Rijks, Y., Neggers, S. F. W., & Durston, S. (2016) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12643 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationKaczkurkin, A., Moore, T. M., Sotiras, A., Xia, C., Shinohara, R., & Satterthwaite, T. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.12.015 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Waddington, F., Hartman, C. A., de Bruijn, Y. G. E., Lappenschaar, M. G. A., Oerlemans, A. M., Buitelaar, J. K., Franke, B., & Rommelse, N. N. J. (2018) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-018-9249-6 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Coxe, S. J., Sibley, M. H., & Becker, S. P. (2020) · Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1111/camh.12441 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Griffiths, K. R., Leikauf, J. E., Tsang, T. W., Clarke, S., Hermens, D. F., Efron, D., Williams, L. M., & Kohn, M. R. (2018) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.03.009 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Neurocognitive subgroups in major depressive disorder
Martin, D. M., Wollny-Huttarsch, D., Nikolin, S., McClintock, S. M., Alonzo, A., Lisanby, S. H., & Loo, C. K. (2020) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000626 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Lecei, A., van Hulst, B. M., de Zeeuw, P., van der Pluijm, M., Rijks, Y., & Durston, S. (2019) · NeuroImage: Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2018.11.011 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationNeurocognitive Profiles in Children With ADHD and Their Predictive Value for Functional Outcomes
Bergwerff, C. E., Luman, M., Weeda, W. D., & Oosterlaan, J. (2017) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054716688533 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“In line with previous studies (Fair et al., 2012; Van Hulst et al., 2015), we expected to find similar neurocognitive profiles in children with ADHD and TD children, with weaker performance for the ADHD group.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSemantic conflicts are resolved differently by adults with and without ADHD
Segal, D., Mashal, N., & Shalev, L. (2015) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2015.09.024 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Han, S., Cui, Q., Zheng, R., Li, S., Zhou, B., Fang, K., Sheng, W., Wen, B., Liu, L., Wei, Y., et al. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-39861-z · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Data-driven methods also encounter a number of challenges, e.g., choosing clustering algorithms and determining the optimal number of subgroups 17,18 .”
MethodAbber, S. R., Becker, K. R., Stern, C. M., Palmer, L. P., Joiner, T. E., Breithaupt, L. E., Kambanis, P. E., Eddy, K. T., Thomas, J. J., & Murray, H. B. (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329172400103x · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Are there distinct cognitive and motivational sub-groups of children with ADHD?
Lambek, R., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Tannock, R., Sørensen, A. V., Damm, D., & Thomsen, P. H. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717003245 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Van Hulst et al. (2015) examined reward sensitivity using an anticipation paradigm, but did not find a sub-group with poor reward sensitivity.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMartinelli, M., Mostofsky, S. H., & Rosch, K. S. (2016) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-016-0237-6 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Evidence of distinct neuropsychological profiles within ADHD (van Hulst et al. 2015) suggests that greater delay discounting often observed in individuals with ADHD may be due to executive dysfunction (Nigg et al. 2005; Willcutt et al. 2005), such that diminished cognitive control leads to…”
van Dijk, F. E., Mostert, J., Glennon, J. C., Onnink, A. M. H., Dammers, J. T., Vásquez, A. A., Kan, C. C., Verkes, R. J., Hoogman, M., Franke, B., et al. (2017) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.08.037 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Use of multivariate classification techniques has led to the identification of subgroups of individuals with ADHD based on a similar neurocognitive profile, both in children and in adults (Fair et al., 2012; Mostert et al., 2015a; van Hulst et al., 2015).”
BackgroundWolfers, T., van Rooij, D., Oosterlaan, J., Heslenfeld, D. J., Hartman, C. A., Hoekstra, P. J., Beckmann, C. F., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J. K., & Marquand, A. F. (2016) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2016.06.020 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Minder, F., Zuberer, A., Brandeis, D., & Drechsler, R. (2019) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.1080/17518423.2019.1600064 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Cognitive Profiling Useful for Unraveling Cross-Disorder Mechanisms
Rommelse, N. N. J., van der Meer, J. M. J., Hartman, C. A., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2016) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702616638826 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“We hypothesize, in line with previous studies using a similar approach in participants with ADHD (Fair et al., 2012; Rajendran et al., 2015; Van Hulst et al., 2015), that several cognitive subtypes are identified that are characterized by domain-specific strengths and weaknesses, replicating in the…”
BackgroundResultBiele, G., Øvergaard, K. R., Friis, S., Zeiner, P., & Aase, H. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03638-9 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Symptom profiles and executive function in childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder
Hybel, K. A., Mortensen, E. L., Højgaard, D. R. M. A., Lambek, R., & Thomsen, P. H. (2017) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2017.05.003 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Zhang, S., Yang, T., Wu, Z., Wang, Y., Lui, S. S. Y., Yang, B., & Chan, R. C. K. (2024) · Journal of Neuropsychology · doi:10.1111/jnp.12334 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Deciding on the Starting Number of Classes of a Latent Class Tree
van den Bergh, M., van Kollenburg, G., & Vermunt, J. K. (2018) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.1177/0081175018780170 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Fernández‐Martín, P., Rodríguez‐Herrera, R., Cánovas, R., Díaz-Orueta, U., Arboleas, A. M. D. S., & Flores, P. (2023) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-023-02250-4 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“It might be congruent with previous subtyping findings dissociating processing speed and interference control in ADHD [38, 39, 80].”
Resultvan Hulst, B. M., de Zeeuw, P., Lupas, K. K., Bos, D. J., Neggers, S. F. W., & Durston, S. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142413 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“In previous studies we have shown that children as young as six years old were able to comprehend and complete the task outside of the scanner [7,8].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationKavanaugh, B. C., Cancilliere, M. K., & Spirito, A. (2019) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852919001081 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Arnett, A. B., McGrath, L., Flaherty, B. P., Pennington, B., & Willcutt, E. (2022) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547221075842 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…time, relatively weak inhibitory control, or lower working memory and processing speed performance, all of which have been previously reported among samples of youth with wellcharacterized ADHD diagnoses (Fair et al., 2012; Karalunas & Nigg, 2019; Roberts et al., 2017; van Hulst et al., 2015).”
BackgroundLeikauf, J. E., Griffiths, K. R., Saggar, M., Hong, D. S., Clarke, S., Efron, D., Tsang, T. W., Hermens, D. F., Kohn, M. R., & Williams, L. M. (2017) · Personalized Medicine in Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pmip.2017.02.001 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Latent class analysis of similar cognitive measures in a sample with ADHD identified a slow and variable group, a quick and accurate group, and a group with more errors on GNG termed a poor cognitive control group [48].”
BackgroundZabel, T. A., Jacobson, L. A., Pritchard, A. E., Mahone, E. M., & Kalb, L. G. (2020) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2020.1822310 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Both of these indicators are associated with increased incidence of developmental disabilities (Mazza et al., 2017; Van Oort et al., 2011) and provide secondary evidence of the complexity of this class.”
BackgroundInfluentialHeterogeneity Within Youth With Childhood-Onset Conduct Disorder in the ABCD Study
Brislin, S. J., Martz, M. E., Cope, L. M., Hardee, J. E., Weigard, A. S., & Heitzeg, M. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.701199 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Fenollar-Cortés, J., & Fuentes, L. J. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00871 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Several studies have highlighted some alterations in emotional processing (Anastopoulos et al., 2011; Classi et al., 2012), as well as higher sensitivity to reward and motivation impairments as core neurocognitive deficits associated to ADHD (e.g., Fosco et al., 2015; van Hulst et al., 2015).”
Jiang, Z., Xu, H., Zhang, A., Yu, L., Wang, X., Zhang, W., Cui, Y., & Li, Y. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-06558-0 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Additionally, many other studies using different clustering variables have identified differences in various characteristics of ADHD patients, such as cognitive control abilities, reaction time, and these subgroups often cluster into three or four categories [30, 31].”
Smith, J. N., Jusko, M. L., Fosco, W. D., Musser, E. D., & Raiker, J. S. (2023) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579422001432 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…sensitivity, there are also studies focusing on “reinforcement” that utilize gambling (e.g., Groen et al., 2013; Humphreys & Lee, 2011; Masunami et al., 2009; Matthys et al., 2004; Tenenbaum et al., 2018) and choice impulsivity (e.g., Richards et al., 2016; Van Hulst et al., 2015) tasks.”
Poznyak, E., Samson, J. L., Barrios, J., Rafi, H., Hasler, R., Perroud, N. A., & Debbané, M. (2023) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000531512 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“First, it is well documented that the neuropsychological pro fi le of ADHD is particularly variable [22 – 24].”
Backgroundvan Langen, M. J. M., van Hulst, B. M., Douma, M., Steffers, M., van de Wiel, N. M. H., van den Ban, E. F., Durston, S., & de Zeeuw, P. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054720928136 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Response times are a measure of approach behavior, as earlier studies using this task have shown that faster response times occur for higher rewards, an effect that is attenuated in ADHD (van Hulst et al., 2015).”
ResultSelf-citationWhat to expect and when to expect it: an fMRI study of expectancy in children with ADHD symptoms
van Hulst, B. M., de Zeeuw, P., Rijks, Y., Neggers, S. F. W., & Durston, S. (2016) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-016-0921-7 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationMahrous, N. N., Albaqami, A., Saleem, R. A., Khoja, B. B., Khan, M. I., & Hawsawi, Y. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2024.1405453 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Martz, M. E., Cope, L. M., Hardee, J. E., Brislin, S. J., Weigard, A. S., Zucker, R. A., & Heitzeg, M. M. (2021) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-021-00907-8 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Current Perspectives on Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Shafiullah, S., & Dhaneshwar, S. S. (2023) · Current Molecular Medicine · doi:10.2174/1566524023666230522145950 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Supervised mixture of experts models for population health
Shou, X., Mavroudeas, G., Magdon‐Ismail, M., Figueroa, J., Kuruzovich, J., & Bennett, K. P. (2020) · Methods · doi:10.1016/j.ymeth.2020.05.016 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Zhang, M., Ma, C., Liu, Y., Ma, X., Liu, T., Jia, F., & Du, L. (2025) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1503/jpn.250032 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Reinelt, T., & Petermann, F. (2018) · Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1661-4747/a000359 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Fernández‐Martín, P., Tovar-Suárez, D., Rodríguez‐Herrera, R., León, J. J., Cánovas, R., & Flores, P. (2025) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-025-03353-z · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“We examined several cluster solutions ( k ) ranging from three to fi ve subgroups [27, 28, 48, 49, 51 – 53].”
Han, S., Xu, Y., Fang, K., Guo, H., Wei, Y., Liu, L., Wen, B., Liu, H., Zhang, Y., & Cheng, J. (2023) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhad149 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Landínez-Martínez, D., Londoño, D. M. M., Aldana, L. A., Lubert, C. D., Robledo-Castro, C., & Gutierrez, A. P. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12050561 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Salmerón, A. D. M., Fernández‐Martín, P., Rodríguez‐Herrera, R., Campos, F. M. A., Abreu, A. C., Fernández, I., & Flores, P. (2025) · NMR in Biomedicine · doi:10.1002/nbm.70088 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“These findings suggest that inhibitory control and latency of response may be useful cognitive markers for distinguishing ADHD subgroups [28, 49, 50], whereas hyperactivity appears to be a shared feature across profiles [51].”
Marder, M. A., Kent, G. W., Abalos, S. A., Springer, J. C., Kukla, T. J., Sharp, D. W., Cerny, B. M., Phillips, M. S., Webber, T. A., & Soble, J. R. (2025) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2025.2537903 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…variability that can emerge within each population examined in this study: ADHD (Fasmer et al., 2016; Kofler et al., 2013; Marshall et al., 2016; Pettersson et al., 2018; van Hulst et al., 2015) and/or other psychological disorders (Depp et al., 2012; Gallagher et al., 2015; Manning et al., 2021).”
Han, S., Tian, Y. Q., Zheng, R., Wen, B., Liu, L., Liu, H., Wei, Y., Chen, H., Zhao, Z., Xia, M., et al. (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291724002617 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“To address the heterogeneity, researchers typically identify more homogeneous subtypes based on neuroimaging, clinical characteristics, or a combination of both (Beijers, Wardenaar, van Loo, & Schoevers, 2019; Lynch et al., 2020; van Hulst, de Zeeuw, & Durston, 2015).”
Mechanism-based groups of children with ADHD are associated with distinct domains of impairment
Shapiro, Z. R., Bray, B. C., & Huang‐Pollock, C. L. (2022) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2022.115018 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Explaining heterogeneity: Latent profiles of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
McGuigan, L. M., Simons, M. U., Mengwasser, S. T., Marshall, P., & Hoelzle, J. B. (2025) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2025.2568595 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Rossi, A. S. U., Moura, L. M., Miranda, M. C., Muszkat, M., de Mello, C. B., & Bueno, O. F. A. (2018) · Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research · doi:10.1590/1414-431x20187653 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“(4) investigated neuropsychological subtypes in individuals with ADHD and typically developing (TD) controls.”
BackgroundLiu, Y., Mellem, M. S., González, H., Kollada, M., Mahableshwarkar, A. R., Madrid, A., Martin, W. J., & Ahammad, P. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/453951 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…et al., 2012; van Loo et al., 2012, 2014; Georgiades et al., 2013; Brodersen et al., 2014; Doshi-Velez et al., 2014; Lewandowski et al., 2014; van Hulst et al., 2014; Veatch et al., 2014; Costa Dias et al., 2015; Geisler et al., 2015; Sun et al., 2015; Clementz et al., 2016; Drysdale et al.,…”
BackgroundTrinczer, I. L., & Shalev, L. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13237239 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Zhang, D., Amran, A. S., Qin, Y., Jiang, H., Sun, L., Bellgrove, M. A., & Johnstone, S. J. (2025) · JCPP Advances · doi:10.1002/jcv2.70032 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…way for further research into specific cultural dimensions that influence EF deficits, encouraging a more dimensional approach to understanding cultural impacts on ADHD. measures used (e.g., Fair et al., 2012; Roberts et al., 2017; Rosello et al., 2020; Vaidya et al., 2020; van Hulst et al., 2015).”
Kennedy, T. M., Wang, F. L., Molina, B. S. G., Williard, A., & Pedersen, S. L. (2026) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-025-00708-w · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Most findings suggest that individuals with ADHD tend to have low sensitivity to reward [103–105 ], akin to the reward defi - ciency model of AUD.”
Law, E. C., Sideridis, G. D., Alkhadim, G. S., Snyder, J., & Sheridan, M. A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19159195 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Training of Cognitive Control in Developmental Disorders: Pitfalls and Promises
Shalev, L., Kataev, N., & Mevorach, C. (2016) · Literacy studies · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31235-4_15 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Food for thought: Novel insights into childhood ADHD
Bergwerff, C. E. (2017) · Digital Academic REpository of VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Biele, G., Øvergaard, K. R., Friis, S., Zeiner, P., & Aase, H. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.02.18.21251985 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kim, S. Y., Youngstrom, E. A., Norris, M., Levine, A. S., Butter, E. M., & Stephenson, K. G. (2025) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911251369977 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“For example, to illustrate the heterogeneity in the neuropsychological presentation of ADHD, researchers used latent variable models to find different subgroups using different tasks of executive function (Lambek et al., 2018; van Hulst et al., 2015).”
Green, B. C. (2018) · Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Is er een typisch neuropsychologisch profiel bij volwassenen met ADHD? Een ontwikkelingsperspectief
Tamminga, H. G. H., & Geurts, H. M. (2016) · Neuropraxis · doi:10.1007/s12474-015-0110-3
Garner, T. M. (2016) · Digital Commons (Liberty University)
Among others : Individual differences in the neurobiology of children with ADHD
van Hulst, B. (2016) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University)
The interplay between motivation and inhibition in ADHD
Ma, I. (2017) · Radboud Repository (Radboud University)
Marx, I., Reis, O., & Berger, C. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-027651
“25 Interestingly, these two groups together represented only 51% of the study subjects, leaving room for further relevant dimensions of impairment such as disturbed timing processes which have been suggested as a further aetiological factor of ADHD, 26 besides the psychological dimensions of…”
BackgroundNeprily, K., Miller, C., Charabin, E., Jelinkova, K., & Climie, E. A. (2023) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24926-6_29
Keulers, E. H. H., Resch, C., Jonkman, L. M., & Hurks, P. P. M. (2023) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2023.2226351
“At the neuropsychological level, research has shown overlap between ADHD and control samples as well as differences within ADHD samples (e.g., Coghill et al., 2014; Fair et al., 2012; van Hulst et al., 2015).”
Backgroundvan Langen, M. J. M. (2023) · doi:10.33540/1965
Pineda‐Alhucema, W., Rua-Montaño, N. A., Díaz-Granados, E. T. A., & Escudero-Cabarcas, J. M. (2026) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2026.2662971
“These results must be interpreted in light of the well-documented heterogeneity in the neurocognitive profile of ADHD (van Hulst et al., 2015), and they suggest that ToM may represent an additional domain of impairment in the disorder, beyond executive dysfunction.”
Smith, J. N., Coxe, S. J., Jusko, M. L., Raiker, J. S., Parent, J. M., Nousen, E. K., Tipsord, J. M., Maron, L. M., Schmarder, K. M., & Musser, E. D. (2026) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026251401554
- Authors
- van Hulst, B. M., de Zeeuw, P., & Durston, S.
- Affiliations
- University Medical Center Utrecht (NL)
- Venue
- Psychological Medicine
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2014-08-07
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 735-745
- ISSN
- 0033-2917 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8978
- OpenAlex
- W2125367435
- Semantic Scholar
- 7037cd05a2f1e785a8cb818690361320a4f4803a
- Cited by
- 87
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 6.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- dspace.library.uu.nl
- Licence
- Locations
- Psychological Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, cognitive control, reward sensitivity, timing, neuropsychological profile
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Female, Humans, Male, Reward, Young Adult, Executive Function
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
