Early life trauma, depression and the glucocorticoid receptor gene—An epigenetic perspective
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Hopes to identify genetic susceptibility loci accounting for the heritability seen in unipolar depression have not been fully realized. Family history remains the 'gold standard' for both risk stratification and prognosis in complex phenotypes such as depression. Meanwhile, the physiological mechanisms underlying life-event triggers for depression remain opaque. Epigenetics, comprising heritable changes in gene expression other than alterations of the nucleotide sequence, may offer a way to deepen our understanding of the aetiology and pathophysiology of unipolar depression and optimize treatments. A heuristic target for exploring the relevance of epigenetic changes in unipolar depression is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) gene (NR3C1) has been found to be susceptible to epigenetic modification, specifically DNA methylation, in the context of environmental stress such as early life trauma, which is an established risk for depression later in life. METHOD: In this paper we discuss the progress that has been made by studies that have investigated the relationship between depression, early trauma, the HPA axis and the NR3C1 gene. Difficulties with the design of these studies are also explored. RESULTS: Future efforts will need to comprehensively address epigenetic natural histories at the population, tissue, cell and gene levels. The complex interactions between the epigenome, genome and environment, as well as ongoing nosological difficulties, also pose significant challenges. CONCLUSIONS: The work that has been done so far is nevertheless encouraging and suggests potential mechanistic and biomarker roles for differential DNA methylation patterns in NR3C1 as well as novel therapeutic targets.
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Childhood abuse and neglect deregulate the developing neurobiological system, reducing resistance to stress and leading to later problems with emotional regulation.
“Childhood abuse and neglect deregulate the developing neurobiological system, reducing resistance to stress and leading to later problems with emotional regulation.”
From Comprehensive review of chronic stress pathways and the efficacy of behavioral stress reduction programs (BSRPs) in managing diseases. (2024) · cites this paper as [37]
Adverse early experiences alter brain structures, such as increased synapse formation and dendritic growth in the basolateral amygdala, and dendritic retraction in the hippocampus, contributing to anxiety-like behaviors.
“These adverse experiences alter brain structures, such as increased synapse formation and dendritic growth in the basolateral amygdala, and dendritic retraction in the hippocampus, contributing to anxiety-like behaviors.”
From Comprehensive review of chronic stress pathways and the efficacy of behavioral stress reduction programs (BSRPs) in managing diseases. (2024) · cites this paper as [37]
The NR3C1 is particularly susceptible to DNA methylation modifications in response to early life trauma, increasing the risk of depression later in life.
“TheNR3C1 is particularly susceptible to DNA methylation modifications in response to early life trauma, increasing the risk of depression later in life [37,124].”
From Comprehensive review of chronic stress pathways and the efficacy of behavioral stress reduction programs (BSRPs) in managing diseases. (2024) · cites this paper as [37]
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- Authors
- Smart, C., Strathdee, G., Watson, S., Murgatroyd, C., & McAllister-Williams, R. H.
- Affiliations
- Newcastle University (GB)
- Cumbria Northumberland Tyne and Wear NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- Manchester Metropolitan University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Smart, C.
- Venue
- Psychological Medicine
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2015-09-21
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 16
- Pages
- 3393-3410
- ISSN
- 0033-2917 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8978
- OpenAlex
- W2199273595
- Cited by
- 61
- References
- 182
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 0.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University) (acceptedVersion)
- Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Epigenetics and DNA Methylation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- early trauma, depression, glucocorticoid receptor gene, NR3C1, DNA methylation, epigenetics, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, genetic susceptibility, environmental stress, biomarkers, gene-environment interaction
- MeSH terms
- Adult Survivors of Child Adverse Events, Depression, Disease Susceptibility, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Receptors, Glucocorticoid, DNA Methylation, Epigenesis, Genetic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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