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Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences.
Open accessAbstract
One of life's great challenges is successfully regulating emotions. Do some emotion regulation strategies have more to recommend them than others? According to Gross's (1998, Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299) process model of emotion regulation, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have a different profile of consequences than strategies that act later on. This review focuses on two commonly used strategies for down-regulating emotion. The first, reappraisal, comes early in the emotion-generative process. It consists of changing the way a situation is construed so as to decrease its emotional impact. The second, suppression, comes later in the emotion-generative process. It consists of inhibiting the outward signs of inner feelings. Experimental and individual-difference studies find reappraisal is often more effective than suppression. Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory. By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory. Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners. This review concludes with a consideration of five important directions for future research on emotion regulation processes.
Checked 2026-10-05 · 1 reference not checked yet
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27 Own result · 22 Own interpretation · 13 No full text of the sources · 9 Sources not found · 6 No basis given · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5 · plain
“It is noteworthy that whereas suppressing negative emotionexpressive behavior has no discernible impact on negative emotion experience ~ e.g., disgust, sadness, embarrassment ! , suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior does have an impact on positive emotion experience ~ e.g., amusement ! .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relations between suppression and negative emotion expression also followed expectations, with suppression being associated with lesser negative emotion expressive behavior.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found that individuals who scored higher on either of the two suppression scales reported having worse memory that those who scored lower on these suppression scales”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
“As predicted, results indicated that suppression led to reliable decrements ~ compared to the control condition ! in both objective memory and memory confidence ratings.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“As predicted, suppression participants performed less well on the verbal memory test than control participants.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They also performed worse on an objective memory test in which they were asked to recall events they had listed in a daily diary 1 week earlier.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike suppression, however, reappraisal had no observable consequences in terms of sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular or electrodermal systems.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, suppression's effect on verbal memory was just as pronounced for the low-emotion as for the high-emotion slides, suggesting that it is the process of engaging in suppression that is cognitively costly, rather than the amount of emotion that is actually suppressed.”
plainn = 76- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- Probably not a substantial claim. 6
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 1. Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression (Controlling for Neuroticism and Social Desirability)”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Self-reported | - .31 * | - .23 * | .09 |”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Objective | - .33 * | - .27 * | .05 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Findings regarding suppression and negative emotion experience were mixed, showing either no effects or positive effects, that is, the more individuals said they suppressed, the more negative emotion they said they felt.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas suppress participants showed greater increases in sympathetic activation than watch or reappraise subjects, these latter two groups did not differ from one another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gross and Levenson ~ 1997 ! found a suppression effect for amusement experience both in a context that predominantly elicited amusement ~ an amusement film ! and in a context in which there were lower levels of amusement ~ a sadness film that evoked a bit of secondary amusement ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross and Levenson, 1997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, suppression decreased nonemotional behavior, and no differences were found between suppress and watch subjects for any of the physiological or experiential variables.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, however, emotions do not force us to respond in certain ways, they only make it more likely we will do so.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals with schizophrenia have decreased emotion-expressive behavior compared with controls, but comparable levels of emotion experience”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kring & Neale, 1996 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reappraisal seems to decrease negative emotion experience and expression while either having no impact or actually increasing positive emotion experience and expression”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These latter changes cohere theoretically, and can be described in terms of 'increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.'”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such monitoring requires a continual outlay of cognitive resources, reducing the resources available for processing events so that they can later be remembered.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The logic of this comparative design hinges on the premise that whereas antecedent-focused forms of emotion regulation ~ such as reappraisal ! principally concern whether or not emotion response tendencies are triggered , response-focused strategies ~ such as suppression ! concern how emotion response tendencies are modulated once they have been triggered .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Suppression also was associated with poorer social support and lesser use of instrumental and emotional social support coping.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“reappraisal led to increased activation of lateral prefrontal regions important for cognitive control, and to decreases in activation of the amygdala and medial orbitofrontal cortex”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Patients with schizophrenia also have well-characterized deficits in social functioning, and lead those interacting with them to feel uncomfortable”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Krause, Steimer, Sanger-Alt, & Wagner, 1989 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression seems to be a blunt instrument-one that decreases both negative and positive emotion-expressive behavior, thereby masking important social signals that would otherwise be available to social interaction partners”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the ongoing requirement of monitoring one's own facial expressions and vocal signals could distract the suppressing individual and make them less responsive to the emotional cues of their partner”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not”
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
“Suppression also consumes cognitive resources, impairing memory for information presented during the emotion regulation period. Reappraisal, by contrast, appears to have no such cognitive consequences.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
In the paper
“Similarly, Harris ~ 2001 ! has found that suppressing visible signs of embarrassment leads to enhanced blood pressure responses, but does not affect emotion experience reports.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harris, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Compared with the no soundtrack condition, participants who heard the soundtrack had lower skin conductance levels and more pleasant mood ratings.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lazarus & Alfert, 1964 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theorists since Darwin ~ 1872 0 1998 ! have maintained that emotionexpressive behavior plays an important role in facilitating social interactions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“over half of the nonsubstance related Axis I clinical disorders and all of the Axis II personality disorders involve some form of emotion dysregulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross & Levenson, 1997 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals increase, maintain, and decrease negative and positive emotions ~ Parrott, 1993 ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Parrott, 1993
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Suppression also increases electrodermal responding and blood pressure, and decreases finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross, 1998a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would make costly self-regulation unnecessary, leaving memory intact.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these findings concerning suppression suggest decreases in positive emotion experience, but the physiological effects of suppression are not clear.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the cognitive costs of suppression are due to the verbal demands of self-instructions issued during the course of suppression ~ e.g., 'I need to keep my face still' ! .”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
In the paper
“Diverse forms of self-regulation result in similar kinds of 'ego depletion,' which suggests that a common resource may be consumed in diverse forms of regulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression appears to have little impact on negative emotion experience, while decreasing positive emotion experience”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
“Suppression is a form of emotion regulation that requires selfmonitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotions involve coordinated behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies.
“In either case, emotions call forth a coordinated set of behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies that together influence how we respond to perceived challenges and opportunities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The personal meaning assigned to a situation strongly influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies are generated.
“The personal meaning that is assigned to the situation is crucial because it powerfully influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies will be generated in that particular situation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
“These individual-difference findings converge with the results of our experimental studies, and suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“In the last two decades clinicians have shown that mindfulness training can improve emotional disorders [74] and negative mood [75] and reduce physiological responses such as skin conductance [76] and amygdala activity [67].”
From Mindful emotion regulation: Exploring the neurocognitive mechanisms behind mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as [74]
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“some models of emotions distinguish between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation strategies, based on the differential processing of internal and external emotional cues [65–68].”
From The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy (2010) · cites this paper as [66]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition, the recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems to be unaffected by emotional reappraisal (see [9,28] but see [29]), whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition [8,9].”
From Effects of differential strategies of emotion regulation (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We used similar instructions as Gross and colleagues to induce suppression (e.g., Gross & Levenson, 1997), and we replicated their earlier findings, suggesting that our experimental manipulation worked (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Laboratory based studies of cognitive change report psychological benefits from instructing participants to reappraise emotional stimuli or tasks in a manner designed to diminish personal identification and increase objectivity before the individuals encounter the stimuli or task”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“to achieve a common goal of behavioral adaptation, CBTs share change principles that target responding at different points along an emotional trajectory (Gross, 2002), including context engagement which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of behavioral exposure and behavioral activation; attention change, which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of attention training”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Within this framework, the process model differentiates emotion regulation strategies according to the time they intervene in the unfolding emotional response: we can distinguish between antecedent-focused strategies, which are used before the emotion response tendencies become active, and response-focused strategies, which are used once the response tendencies are generated [56,60,61].”
From Interoceptive Ability and Emotion Regulation in Mind–Body Interventions: An Integrative Review (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy (Gross, 2002), that has been demonstrated to facilitate emotion regulation in healthy and psychiatric cohorts.”
From Rt-fMRI neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training modulates amygdala responsivity in posttraumatic stress disorder (2020) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
In the citing paper
“Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) is one approach to combining CBTs and MBIs that addresses sequencing by targeting the refractory negative emotionality and resulting negative self-referentiality that characterizes distress disorders [75] by first addressing attention change techniques”
From All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies (2019) · cites this paper as [81]
In the citing paper
“Taken together, this suggests that the generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect (Gross, 2002).”
From Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training (2014) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
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Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
“We asked unacquainted pairs of women to watch an upsetting film, and then discuss their reactions ~ Butler, Egloff, Wilhelm, Smith, & Gross, 2002 ! .”
§ REFERENCES · p. 10
“Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.”
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Items 4,501–4,600 of 4,870
Valencia, P. D., & la Rosa-Gómez, A. D. (2025) · Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (English ed ) · doi:10.1016/j.rcpeng.2025.10.003
Zhu, S., & Leng, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1647823 · Cited by 1
“Based on the mediation analysis framework of Baron and Kenny (1986), three theory-driven mediation paths were set up in this study: (Gross, 2002).”
InfluentialThảo, L. T., & Thùy, P. T. (2025) · Educational Research and Evaluation · doi:10.1080/13803611.2025.2587776
“In what follows, we distinguish emotion regulation, the strategies teachers use to influence what they feel and how they express it during instruction, from emotional labor, the enactment of institutionally and culturally shaped display expectations at work (Gross, 1998, 2002; Hochschild, 1983).”
Differences in Emotion Signals Based on Gender According to EEG Signal Record
Wibawa, A. D., Suryani, S. D., Sebayang, A. R., Gana, R. S. S. K., Bawole, V. S., Nauraliefia, M. S., Tarigan, J. K. S., Utami, P. S. D., Baheja, A. N., Syahrani, K., et al. (2025) · Engineering headway · doi:10.4028/p-jsh5qy
“The complex response produced by emotion is significantly divided into 2, namely internal and external [2]-[4].”
Quispe, L. M. C., Paredes, M. S. T., Gómez, A. B. A., et al. (2025) · Prospherus · doi:10.63535/tn1hp787
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Zou, Y., Li, Y., Li, Z., Yu, X., Liu, A., Zeng, X., Shao, C., Huang, Y., & Wang, R. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03567-2
杜, 若. (2025) · Interdisciplinary Science Letters · doi:10.12677/isl.2025.96132
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Kaczorowska, K., Conduit, J., & Goodman, S. (2025) · Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ) · doi:10.1177/14413582251389231
Wan, Q., & Wen, S. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-8044731/v1
Psychosoziale Entwicklung in Kindesalter und Adoleszenz
Zurek, P. P., & Hein, S. D. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-71375-4_19
Bandır, S. A., Kızıltepe, R., & Kaçar‐Başaran, S. (2025) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.1766185
Turnbull, K., Tao, A., Ji, X., & Cruz, S. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251404444
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CHENG, X., & ZHANG, Y. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5807317
Horner, C. G., LaVenia, K. N., Vostal, M., Ishola, O. T., & Boff, C. T. (2025) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/01614681251401654
“…is aligned with surface acting and perhaps even better with experiential suppression or avoidance, as it would likely be framed in the emotion regulation literature (e.g., Campbell-Sills et al., 2006; Gross, 2002)—all of which are associated with worse outcomes for individuals and relationships.”
Matti, N., Witthöft, M., & Specht, M. B. (2025) · Somnologie - Schlafforschung und Schlafmedizin · doi:10.1007/s11818-025-00531-5
Kupermintz, H., Tesler, E. K., Gleit, H., & Kopelman-Rubin, D. (2025) · Social and Emotional Learning Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1016/j.sel.2025.100168
Emotion Recognition with Portable EEG in Immersive 360-Degree Environment
Huang, J., Huang, W., Lin, T. C. R., Wang, P., Han, C., Wong, C. S., Bethge, P. H., Shaw, J., & Chan, R. H. M. (2025) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc58623.2025.11253461
Ferreira, M., Gadelha, M. J. N., Galdino, M. K. C., Ortíz, A. I. V., Nunes, S. A. N., & do Nascimento, E. B. (2025) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2025.2594552
Mayda, F. A., & Özkan, Y. (2025) · International Journal Of Eurasia Social Sciences · doi:10.70736/ijoess.538
The relationship between youth irritability and neural circuitry related to emotion regulation
Stumps, A. D., Church, L. D., Bounoua, N., Dougherty, L. R., & Spielberg, J. M. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.120846 · Cited by 1
Alsawalqa, R. O., & Zawahreh, H. A. R. A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1695691 · Cited by 3
“Adolescents struggling to regulate anger may respond impulsively to stress and con fl ict, leading to aggressive behaviors (49).”
de Reynal, I., Mella, N., Gentaz, É., & Richard, S. (2025) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.3917/anpsy1.253.0191
Tran-Huu, S. F. (2025) · Psychology and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.11648/j.pbs.20251406.12
Exploring the Role of Emotional Regulation in Leader–Member Exchange (Lmx) Relationships
Tse, H. H. M., Troth, A. C., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2024) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/979-8-88730-802-920251011
Between Informal and Formal Elder Care
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Li, S., Wang, Z., Li, Y., Su, J., Ru, T., Chen, Q., & Zhou, G. (2025) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2025.2596936 · Cited by 1
“Emotion regulation involves conscious or uncon-scious processes by which individuals modulate the occurrence, experience, and expression of emotions (Gross, 2002).”
Devis, L., & Peris‐Vicente, J. (2007) · TDX (Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa)
When it feels good to be bad: The effect of guilt on self-enhancement
Moloney, J. M. (2014) · VCU Scholars Compass (Virginia Commonwealth University) · doi:10.25772/mmqe-kv31
“In general, emotion regulation refers to individuals’ attempts to influence their emotions to attain some goal (Gross, 2002; Tamir 2011).”
BackgroundOhlsson, A., Wallenius, C., & Larsson, G. (2014)
Cochrane, M. (2014) · UVic’s Research and Learning Repository (University of Victoria)
Arga röster ökar muskelanspänningen
Gustafsson, K. M. (2012)
Stress ed emozioni: Il ruolo dell’elaborazione cognitiva delle emozioni
Compare, A., Germani, E., Carotenuto, A., Grossi, E., & Forno, D. D. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-88-470-2080-1_3
Onyewuenyi, I. C. (2013) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh)
Ntumi, S., Nimo, D. G., DANQUAH, S. O., et al. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-6731542/v1
Emmelkamp, J., Wisman, M. A., Beuk, N., Stikkelbroek, Y. A. J., Nauta, M. H., Dekker, J., & Christ, C. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21340304
Emmelkamp, J., Wisman, M. A., Beuk, N., Stikkelbroek, Y. A. J., Nauta, M. H., Dekker, J., & Christ, C. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21340307
Self-regulatory contributions to depressive symptoms in a community sample of youth
Abraham, E. H., & McAuley, T. (2025) · Personalized Medicine in Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pmip.2025.100163
Rundle, J. (2004) · Victoria University Research Repository (Victoria University)
Relationship Conflict as Mediator between Perfectionism and Burnout of Childcare Teachers
Min, H. Y. (2025) · Human Ecology Research · doi:10.6115/her.2025.025
An explorative study on emotional dysregulation in dissociative disorder
Saini, N., Bhowmick, I., & Kumar, P. (2025) · Telangana Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/tjp.tjp_46_25
Hao, S., Xu, X., Wang, X., & Wei, W. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.89677
Alexithymia Among Medical Students and Its Influencing Factors: A Latent Profile Analysis
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Ohri, K., & Dutta, H. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-2970-3.ch014
Akyıl, Y., Oral, T., Çakır, H. Y., Bolat, F., & Erdinç, B. (2025) · Batı anadolu eğitim bilimleri dergisi · doi:10.51460/baebd.1693728
Neguțu, V. (2025) · Review of Psychopedagogy · doi:10.56663/rop.v14i1.96
“Early interventions for preschoolers with socio-emotional problems have proven effective in improving later socialization and academic performance (Gross, 2002; Kelleher et al., 2006; Reid et al., 2004; Thomas & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007).”
Evli, M., Topbaş, Z. S., Şimşek, N., Işıkgöz, M., & Öztürk, H. İ. (2025) · Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.34108/eujhs.1498128 · Cited by 1
The Impact of Depression on Defense Mechanisms in Adults: The Moderating Role of Attachment Style
Tanase, A.-I., Trifu, A.-D., & Trifu, S. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16010057
“Individuals with severe depression are likely to lack access to or the ability to apply these more adaptive mechanisms, due to the severity of their symptoms (Gross, 2002).”
Agent or hammer?: A philosophical inquiry into machine moral agency
Asif, S. (2025) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-025-00920-4
“For instance, Hobbes, despite his focus on rationality, recognized fear, despair, and hope as fundamental drivers of human decisions [35].”
Ling, G., Li, Z., Chen, Y., & Xingchao, W. A. N. G. (2026) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-025-01583-2 · Cited by 1
“Expressive suppression is classified as a response-focused strategy, typically employed at the final stage of the emotion-generation process, after emotions have already elicited behavioral, experiential, and physiological responses (Gross, 2002).”
Yaseen, N., & Bashir, N. (2025) · Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi · doi:10.17066/tpdrd.1560749
Çakir, G., & Sapancı, A. (2025) · Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi · doi:10.17066/tpdrd.1591320
Nieto, M. T. G., & Valor‐Segura, I. (2025) · Escritos de Psicología / Psychological Writings · doi:10.24310/escpsi.18.2.2025.21152
A Threat Management Approach to Explaining Women’s Aversive Rape Fantasies
Roberto, D. P., Tagaki-Morris, M., & McDonald, M. M. (2026) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-025-03344-7
Brunel, J., & Fombouchet, Y. (2026) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2026.2613399 · Cited by 1
“The ERQ has been extensively used to predict psychological outcomes, with reappraisal generally considered adaptive and expressive suppression associated with various psychopathological conditions (Gross, 2002).”
Konuşma Sesi Bozukluğu olan Çocukların Mizaç Özellikleri
Sarımehmetoğlu, E. A., & Barmak, E. (2026) · Ergoterapi ve Rehabilitasyon Dergisi · doi:10.30720/ered.1757439
Yao, M., & Abdullah, M. N. L. Y. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106205 · Cited by 1
Ekiz, E., van Alphen, S. P. J., Ouwens, M. A., & Videler, A. C. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.70090
“Emotion regulation can be described as the process of shaping which emotions one feels, when one feels them, and how one expresses them, encompassing changes in the onset, intensity, length, and interplay of emotional responses in terms of behavior, experience, and physiology (Gross 2002).”
Miczka, J., & Boer, D. (2026) · Open Psychology · doi:10.1515/psych-2025-0011
Liu, X., Wei, X., & Wang, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1711549 · Cited by 2
“Second, emotion regulation research shows that suppressing negative emotions in response to stressors generalizes to overall emotional expressiveness, including reduced positive emotional expression (Gross, 2002; Butler et al., 2003).”
Heightened Affective Reactivity Is Associated With More-Severe Symptoms of Emotional Disorders
Fulton, A., Forbes, L., Sundram, S., & Bennett, D. (2026) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026251393622 · Cited by 1
Ciacchini, R., Lazzarelli, A., Papini, G., Viti, A., Scafuto, F., Orrù, G., Gemignani, A., & Conversano, C. (2026) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare14020202 · Cited by 1
Eating disorders in the shadow of conflict: Risk factors in civilians exposed to war
Peleg, O., & Gendelman, L. (2026) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2026.113647
A service evaluation of ‘ IDEAS ’ – Modular treatment for youth with complex emotional needs
Harding, A., Orsucci, F. F., & Baines, J. (2026) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.70034
“Emotional dysregulation is a component of BPD (Chapman, 2019 ), which refers to an individual's reduced ability to regulate their emotional experiences through cognitive, behavioural, interpersonal and intrapersonal strategies (Gross, 2002; Gross & Thompson, 2007; Mansueto et al., 2022).”
Hann, F., Rónai, L., Kéri, S., & Polner, B. (2026) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wcbt4_v2
Raghunathan, R. S., Jeon, L., Miller, J., & Johnson, S. B. (2026) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-026-09922-7
“To the extent that educators are given time to re-think the situation, they are less likely to be negatively impacted by it and better able to devote cognitive resources to supporting students (Gross, 2002 ; Lazarus & Alfert, 1964).”
Academic Expression and Emotional Suppression of an Indonesian Student in China
Alifa, A. R. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-4212-2.ch005
Network analysis of emotion regulation and moral injury symptoms among medical staff
Zhou, Y., Zhu, W., Wang, J., Li, K., Zhi, R., Zhao, L., Hao, L., Han, Y., Wang, J., Wang, Q., et al. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-35438-0
“Empirical evidence confirms cognitive reappraisal effectively reduces negative affect 1 , enhances positive affect 58 , attenuates physiological reactivity 59 , and mitigates MI symptoms 11 .”
Çetin, D., Steinsbekk, S., & van der Kaap‐Deeder, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Developmental Psychology · doi:10.3389/fdpys.2025.1740389
“Emotion regulation can be defined as the processes that people use to modulate their emotions, thereby increasing, maintaining, or decreasing their emotional response (Gross, 2002).”
Reclaiming Emotions in ELT Preparation
Hernández, A. J. A. (2025) · Enletawa Journal · doi:10.19053/uptc.2011835x.20582
Robots with Heart: How Emotion Regulation Shapes Human-Robot Interaction
Jia, L., Ayoub, J., Tian, D., Song, M., Moradi‐Pari, E., & Du, N. (2026) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-026-01358-2 · Cited by 1
“As shown in Table 1 , for robot-mediated emotion regula - tion, given the advantages of cognitive reappraisal in fos - tering deeper trust and emotional bonds, we selected it as the basic regulation method for the robots [ 45 , 55 ].”
Chen, J., Chen, R., Hu, X., Zhang, Y. C., & Mai, X. (2026) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsag003
Tu, H., & Zhao, T. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08505-4 · Cited by 1
“Gross’ Process Model of Emotion Regulation (PMER) (1998b, 2002) categorized emotion regulation strategies into antecedent-focused and response-focused, based on the timeline of the emotional response.”
Yang, S., Rau, P. P., & Cai, Y. (2026) · International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/10803548.2026.2616176
“Emotion regulation refers to the process by which individuals modulate their emotional experiences through strategic deployment of situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change (cognitive reap-praisal) and response modulation (expressive suppression) [36,37].”
Zhang, B., Li, C., Shi, M., Li, S., & Lv, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736571 · Cited by 1
“Gross (2002) model distinguishes between adaptive cognitive reappraisal and maladaptive expressive suppression in emotion regulation— cognitive reappraisal is linked to better coping in children (Aguinaga San José et al., 2023), whereas expressive suppression increases stress, and resilience is…”
Negi, M., & Gaur, A. (2026) · The Open Psychology Journal · doi:10.2174/0118743501417033251104104812
Bauer, C. A., Walton, G. M., Hoyer, J., & Job, V. (2026) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672251412492 · Cited by 2
Expressive suppression strengthens coherence between arousal intensity and arousal interpretation
Knauft, K. M., Tyra, A. T., Fergus, T. A., Williams, S. E., & Ginty, A. T. (2026) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70062
Sun, W., Liu, X., Ding, S., He, D., Wu, Q., & Li, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745339
“In research on self-emotion regulation, multiple pieces of evidence indicate that CR is more effective than ES (Gross, 2002).”
Emotional and Cultural Intelligence in Strategic Management
GİRİŞKEN, A. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-6466-7.ch014
Adaptation of the Interpersonal Regulation Scale to Turkish: Validity and Reliability Study
Yüzbaşı, D. V., & AKGÜN, B. D. (2020) · DergiPark (Istanbul University)
ER, Y. O. (2025) · DergiPark (Istanbul University)
Baltacı, U. B., Teke, E., & Avşaroğlu, S. (2026) · Erzincan Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.17556/erziefd.1713192
Courrèges, M. (2025) · Neuropsychiatrie de l Enfance et de l Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.neurenf.2025.03.010
Zhang, S., Gu, L., Yang, J., & Ju, R. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-09008-y
“Research indicates that individuals who frequently use cognitive reappraisal tend to have more positive emotional experiences and behaviors (Gross, 2002), fewer depressive symptoms (Kelley et al., 2019), and higher life satisfaction and well-being (Jazaieri et al., 2017).”
Ferroglio, M. L. (2026) · English language education · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-12114-1_7 · Cited by 1
Parisi, A. B., Johnson, M., Zgierska, A. E., Barrett, B. P., Edwards, R. R., & Garland, E. L. (2026) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2026.106219
Dysregulation of Epistemic Emotions in ADHD: Towards an Integrative Model
Varga, S., & Steglich‐Petersen, A. (2026) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-025-00797-6
“Although the field lacks an explicit and consensual definition, we will take “emotion regulation” to refer broadly to processes that are responsible for which emotions an individual has, and how they are experienced (Gross 2002; 2014).”
Traité de régulation des émotions
André, C. (2012) · Carrefour des psychothérapies · doi:10.3917/dbu.mikol.2012.01.0527
Saha, S., Singh, M. K., & Obhrai, S. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-6157-4.ch002
Lackner, Z., Carré, A., & Graton, A. (2026) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-026-10207-8
“These components of an emotional episode lead to behavioral changes, unless the behavioral response is inhibited by emotion regulation (Frijda et al., 2014; Gross, 2002; Lowe & Ziemke, 2011).”
Vitale, V., White, M. P., Bratman, G. N., Gross, J. J., Preece, D. A., & Bonaiuto, M. (2026) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2026.102960
Self-citationYang, Q., & Wang, Y. (2026) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1002/ejsc.70124
“Avoidance coping strategies caused by negative physical sensation will reduce behavioral expression and lead to the increase of autonomic nerve activities such as heart rate, respiration, and skin electrical activity (Gross 2002).”
Sadighpour, M., Vargahan, F. A., Zarezadeh, S., Farahani, H., & Vand, H. D. A. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106535
Goussinsky, R., & Michael, K. (2026) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251363621
Luo, Y., He, Z., & Xie, H. W. (2026) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-026-02801-1
“Nonetheless, our results aligned with previous research confirming that cognitive reappraisal is an effective strategy for alleviating social pain (Gross, 2002; He et al., 2018, 2019).”
Schurig, H. L., Stender, E. M., Hennig, J., Ohme, M., Seidel, M., & Ehrlich, S. (2026) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-026-06870-8
“Emotional regulation, particularly reappraisal and suppression, plays a crucial role in mental health and well-being 24 .”
Metadata
- Authors
- Gross, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gross, James J.
- ORCID
- Gross, James J.
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 281-291
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2128126978
- Cited by
- 4,890
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 341 · 2025: 492 · 2024: 315 · 2023: 314 · 2022: 321 · 2021: 315 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 267 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 254 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 232 · 2014: 233 · 2013: 228 · 2012: 179
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58147)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, process model of emotion regulation, emotional experience, emotional expression, memory impairment, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Psychophysiology, Social Behavior
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