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Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences.
Open accessAbstract
One of life's great challenges is successfully regulating emotions. Do some emotion regulation strategies have more to recommend them than others? According to Gross's (1998, Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299) process model of emotion regulation, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have a different profile of consequences than strategies that act later on. This review focuses on two commonly used strategies for down-regulating emotion. The first, reappraisal, comes early in the emotion-generative process. It consists of changing the way a situation is construed so as to decrease its emotional impact. The second, suppression, comes later in the emotion-generative process. It consists of inhibiting the outward signs of inner feelings. Experimental and individual-difference studies find reappraisal is often more effective than suppression. Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory. By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory. Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners. This review concludes with a consideration of five important directions for future research on emotion regulation processes.
Checked 2026-10-05 · 1 reference not checked yet
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27 Own result · 22 Own interpretation · 13 No full text of the sources · 9 Sources not found · 6 No basis given · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5 · plain
“It is noteworthy that whereas suppressing negative emotionexpressive behavior has no discernible impact on negative emotion experience ~ e.g., disgust, sadness, embarrassment ! , suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior does have an impact on positive emotion experience ~ e.g., amusement ! .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relations between suppression and negative emotion expression also followed expectations, with suppression being associated with lesser negative emotion expressive behavior.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found that individuals who scored higher on either of the two suppression scales reported having worse memory that those who scored lower on these suppression scales”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
“As predicted, results indicated that suppression led to reliable decrements ~ compared to the control condition ! in both objective memory and memory confidence ratings.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“As predicted, suppression participants performed less well on the verbal memory test than control participants.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They also performed worse on an objective memory test in which they were asked to recall events they had listed in a daily diary 1 week earlier.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike suppression, however, reappraisal had no observable consequences in terms of sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular or electrodermal systems.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, suppression's effect on verbal memory was just as pronounced for the low-emotion as for the high-emotion slides, suggesting that it is the process of engaging in suppression that is cognitively costly, rather than the amount of emotion that is actually suppressed.”
plainn = 76- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- Probably not a substantial claim. 6
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 1. Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression (Controlling for Neuroticism and Social Desirability)”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Self-reported | - .31 * | - .23 * | .09 |”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Objective | - .33 * | - .27 * | .05 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Findings regarding suppression and negative emotion experience were mixed, showing either no effects or positive effects, that is, the more individuals said they suppressed, the more negative emotion they said they felt.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas suppress participants showed greater increases in sympathetic activation than watch or reappraise subjects, these latter two groups did not differ from one another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gross and Levenson ~ 1997 ! found a suppression effect for amusement experience both in a context that predominantly elicited amusement ~ an amusement film ! and in a context in which there were lower levels of amusement ~ a sadness film that evoked a bit of secondary amusement ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross and Levenson, 1997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, suppression decreased nonemotional behavior, and no differences were found between suppress and watch subjects for any of the physiological or experiential variables.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, however, emotions do not force us to respond in certain ways, they only make it more likely we will do so.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals with schizophrenia have decreased emotion-expressive behavior compared with controls, but comparable levels of emotion experience”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kring & Neale, 1996 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reappraisal seems to decrease negative emotion experience and expression while either having no impact or actually increasing positive emotion experience and expression”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These latter changes cohere theoretically, and can be described in terms of 'increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.'”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such monitoring requires a continual outlay of cognitive resources, reducing the resources available for processing events so that they can later be remembered.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The logic of this comparative design hinges on the premise that whereas antecedent-focused forms of emotion regulation ~ such as reappraisal ! principally concern whether or not emotion response tendencies are triggered , response-focused strategies ~ such as suppression ! concern how emotion response tendencies are modulated once they have been triggered .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Suppression also was associated with poorer social support and lesser use of instrumental and emotional social support coping.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“reappraisal led to increased activation of lateral prefrontal regions important for cognitive control, and to decreases in activation of the amygdala and medial orbitofrontal cortex”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Patients with schizophrenia also have well-characterized deficits in social functioning, and lead those interacting with them to feel uncomfortable”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Krause, Steimer, Sanger-Alt, & Wagner, 1989 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression seems to be a blunt instrument-one that decreases both negative and positive emotion-expressive behavior, thereby masking important social signals that would otherwise be available to social interaction partners”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the ongoing requirement of monitoring one's own facial expressions and vocal signals could distract the suppressing individual and make them less responsive to the emotional cues of their partner”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not”
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
“Suppression also consumes cognitive resources, impairing memory for information presented during the emotion regulation period. Reappraisal, by contrast, appears to have no such cognitive consequences.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
In the paper
“Similarly, Harris ~ 2001 ! has found that suppressing visible signs of embarrassment leads to enhanced blood pressure responses, but does not affect emotion experience reports.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harris, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Compared with the no soundtrack condition, participants who heard the soundtrack had lower skin conductance levels and more pleasant mood ratings.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lazarus & Alfert, 1964 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theorists since Darwin ~ 1872 0 1998 ! have maintained that emotionexpressive behavior plays an important role in facilitating social interactions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“over half of the nonsubstance related Axis I clinical disorders and all of the Axis II personality disorders involve some form of emotion dysregulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross & Levenson, 1997 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals increase, maintain, and decrease negative and positive emotions ~ Parrott, 1993 ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Parrott, 1993
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Suppression also increases electrodermal responding and blood pressure, and decreases finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross, 1998a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would make costly self-regulation unnecessary, leaving memory intact.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these findings concerning suppression suggest decreases in positive emotion experience, but the physiological effects of suppression are not clear.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the cognitive costs of suppression are due to the verbal demands of self-instructions issued during the course of suppression ~ e.g., 'I need to keep my face still' ! .”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
In the paper
“Diverse forms of self-regulation result in similar kinds of 'ego depletion,' which suggests that a common resource may be consumed in diverse forms of regulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression appears to have little impact on negative emotion experience, while decreasing positive emotion experience”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
“Suppression is a form of emotion regulation that requires selfmonitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotions involve coordinated behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies.
“In either case, emotions call forth a coordinated set of behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies that together influence how we respond to perceived challenges and opportunities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The personal meaning assigned to a situation strongly influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies are generated.
“The personal meaning that is assigned to the situation is crucial because it powerfully influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies will be generated in that particular situation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
“These individual-difference findings converge with the results of our experimental studies, and suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“In the last two decades clinicians have shown that mindfulness training can improve emotional disorders [74] and negative mood [75] and reduce physiological responses such as skin conductance [76] and amygdala activity [67].”
From Mindful emotion regulation: Exploring the neurocognitive mechanisms behind mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as [74]
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“some models of emotions distinguish between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation strategies, based on the differential processing of internal and external emotional cues [65–68].”
From The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy (2010) · cites this paper as [66]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition, the recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems to be unaffected by emotional reappraisal (see [9,28] but see [29]), whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition [8,9].”
From Effects of differential strategies of emotion regulation (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We used similar instructions as Gross and colleagues to induce suppression (e.g., Gross & Levenson, 1997), and we replicated their earlier findings, suggesting that our experimental manipulation worked (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Laboratory based studies of cognitive change report psychological benefits from instructing participants to reappraise emotional stimuli or tasks in a manner designed to diminish personal identification and increase objectivity before the individuals encounter the stimuli or task”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“to achieve a common goal of behavioral adaptation, CBTs share change principles that target responding at different points along an emotional trajectory (Gross, 2002), including context engagement which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of behavioral exposure and behavioral activation; attention change, which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of attention training”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Within this framework, the process model differentiates emotion regulation strategies according to the time they intervene in the unfolding emotional response: we can distinguish between antecedent-focused strategies, which are used before the emotion response tendencies become active, and response-focused strategies, which are used once the response tendencies are generated [56,60,61].”
From Interoceptive Ability and Emotion Regulation in Mind–Body Interventions: An Integrative Review (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy (Gross, 2002), that has been demonstrated to facilitate emotion regulation in healthy and psychiatric cohorts.”
From Rt-fMRI neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training modulates amygdala responsivity in posttraumatic stress disorder (2020) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
In the citing paper
“Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) is one approach to combining CBTs and MBIs that addresses sequencing by targeting the refractory negative emotionality and resulting negative self-referentiality that characterizes distress disorders [75] by first addressing attention change techniques”
From All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies (2019) · cites this paper as [81]
In the citing paper
“Taken together, this suggests that the generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect (Gross, 2002).”
From Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training (2014) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
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Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
“We asked unacquainted pairs of women to watch an upsetting film, and then discuss their reactions ~ Butler, Egloff, Wilhelm, Smith, & Gross, 2002 ! .”
§ REFERENCES · p. 10
“Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
The cognitive control of emotion
OCHSNER, K., & GROSS, J. (2005) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.010 · Cited by 4,495
“By contrast, cognitive regulation neutralizes negative experience without impairing memory and might decrease physiological arousal [ 15 ,16].”
BackgroundSelf-citationContributions of the Amygdala to Emotion Processing: From Animal Models to Human Behavior
Phelps, E. A., & LeDoux, J. E. (2005) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.09.025 · Cited by 3,203
“Successful reappraisal of emotional scenes alters physiological arousal responses, as well as ratings of emotional reactions (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundEmotional processing in anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex
Etkin, A., Egner, T., & Kalisch, R. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.11.004 · Cited by 3,059
Lerner, J. S., Li, Y., Valdesolo, P., & Kassam, K. S. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115043 · Cited by 2,913
Rethinking feelings: an fMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion
Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892902760807212 · Cited by 2,520
“Based on these cognitive neuroscience models, as well as process models of emotion and emotion regulation (Gross, 2002; Ochsner & Feldman Barrett, 2001), we hypothesized that comparable interactions between cognitive control and emotion-processing systems would underlie reappraisal.”
Self-citation(2007) · Cited by 3,233
Self-citationJohn, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2004) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.x · Cited by 2,381
Self-citationOchsner, K. N., Ray, R. D., Cooper, J. C., Robertson, E. R., Chopra, S., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Gross, J. J. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.030 · Cited by 2,113
“In comparison to other regulatory strategies, such as suppressing emotion expressive behavior, reappraisal appears to provide one of the most flexible and effective means of diminishing the negative impact of an aversive event (Gross, 2002; Gross and Levenson, 1993; Richards and Gross, 2000).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Neural Bases of Emotion Regulation: Reappraisal and Suppression of Negative Emotion
Goldin, P. R., McRae, K., Ramel, W., & Gross, J. J. (2008) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.031 · Cited by 1,886
“This suggests that successful expressive-suppression may be achieved in emotionally challenging situations but at a cost, namely, sustained activation that may be physiologically taxing and lead to disturbances in psychological and physical functioning (7;8;47).”
InfluentialSelf-citationEmotion and Cognition: Insights from Studies of the Human Amygdala
Phelps, E. A. (2006) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070234 · Cited by 1,798
“More recently, there has been a renewed interest in the influence of cognition on emotion inspired by investigations of emotion regulation (see Gross 2002 for a review).”
BackgroundRegulatory Flexibility: An Individual Differences Perspective on Coping and Emotion Regulation
Bonanno, G. A., & Burton, C. L. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691613504116 · Cited by 1,676
“…that emotional reappraisal is a generally efficacious and adaptive strategy, whereas expressive suppression is nearly uniformly maladaptive (e.g., Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997; John & Gross, 2004; Richards & Gross, 2000; Roberts, Levenson, & Gross, 2008; Srivastava, Tamir,…”
Optimizing inhibitory learning during exposure therapy
Craske, M. G., Kircanski, K., Zelikowsky, M., Mystkowski, J., Chowdhury, N., & Baker, A. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.10.003 · Cited by 1,607
“‘Toleration’ is central to the concept of emotion regulation, operationalized as the actions designed to influence which emotions are present, and how they are experienced or expressed (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundAn integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.115.2.336 · Cited by 1,576
“As already described, individuals might spend some of their attentional resources searching the environment for evidence to reconcile these competing hypotheses.”
BackgroundDS14: Standard Assessment of Negative Affectivity, Social Inhibition, and Type D Personality
Denollet, J. (2005) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000149256.81953.49 · Cited by 1,583
“High-SI individuals tend to inhibit the outward signs of inner feelings as a strategy for downregulating emotion (47).”
BackgroundSheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2011) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611418350 · Cited by 1,435
“Our finding that individuals choose to engage with lowintensity emotional stimuli via reappraisal is consistent with previous studies that have repeatedly shown that the reinterpretation of emotional events can be a highly effective form of emotion regulation (see Gross, 2002, for a review).”
MethodResultSelf-citationThe social consequences of expressive suppression
Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wlhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., Erickson, E. A., & Gross, J. J. (2003) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.48 · Cited by 1,400
“Similar to expressive suppression, survey data show that cognitive reappraisal is common in daily life (Gross & John, 2002), and experimental data show that it can be manipulated in a lab setting (Gross, 1998a; Richards & Gross, 2000).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationPhillips, M. L., Ladouceur, C. D., & Drevets, W. C. (2008) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2008.65 · Cited by 1,383
Mindful emotion regulation: an integrative review
Chambers, R., Gullone, E., & Allen, N. B. (2009) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.06.005 · Cited by 1,360
“The identified key strategies of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal emerge from a process model of ER (Gross, 1998a, 2002; Gross & John, 2003), which suggests that since emotions are temporal events.”
BackgroundEvent-Related Potentials, Emotion, and Emotion Regulation: An Integrative Review
Hajcak, G., MacNamara, A., & Olvet, D. M. (2010) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565640903526504 · Cited by 1,370
“…emotion regulation such as reappraisal, on the other hand, have been shown to decrease the intensity of self-reported negative affective experience (Gross, 2002; Hajcak & Nieuwenhuis, 2006; Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002), but do not appear to cause increases in sympathetic nervous system…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAn appraisal perspective of teacher burnout: Examining the emotional work of teachers
Chang, M.-L. (2009) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-009-9106-y · Cited by 1,349
Emotion regulation in depression: Relation to cognitive inhibition
Joormann, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2009) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930903407948 · Cited by 1,356
“In contrast to more cognitive strategies, expressive suppression is used late in the emotiongeneration sequence, likely after other strategies have failed and negative affect is experienced (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology
Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739 · Cited by 1,214
“Specifically, emotions are generated in a series of stages that include attending to a situation, giving it a valenced meaning, and producing a loosely coupled set of experiential, behavioral, and physiological responses (Gross 1998b, 2001, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationAmygdala–frontal connectivity during emotion regulation
Banks, S. J., Eddy, K. T., Angstadt, M., Nathan, P. J., & Phan, K. L. (2007) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsm029 · Cited by 1,187
Emotion Theory and Research: Highlights, Unanswered Questions, and Emerging Issues
Izard, C. E. (2008) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163539 · Cited by 1,216
Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: a dual-process framework.
Gyurak, A., Gross, J. J., & Etkin, A. (2011) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.544160 · Cited by 1,015
“…cognitive reappraisal, has been shown to result in lower physiological reactivity and less intense emotional experiences than suppression (Gross, 1998b, 2002) and has also been related to lower self-reported emotions in a lab stress and better functional life outcomes in an at-risk…”
Self-citationKashdan, T. B., Barrios, V., Forsyth, J. P., & Steger, M. F. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.10.003 · Cited by 994
Emotion regulation and culture: are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific?
Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L., & Gross, J. J. (2007) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.30 · Cited by 986
Self-citationMental Health Smartphone Apps: Review and Evidence-Based Recommendations for Future Developments
Bakker, D., Kazantzis, N., Rickwood, D., & Rickard, N. (2016) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/mental.4984 · Cited by 886
“Finally, cognitive change is the ability to change one’s perspective on an event, which then affects the emotional significance and meaning of that event [61].”
A meta-analysis of emotional reactivity in major depressive disorder
Bylsma, L. M., Morris, B. H., & Rottenberg, J. (2008) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.001 · Cited by 933
“…(HRV)/respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) (e.g., Appelhans & Luecken, 2006; Butler, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2006), blood pressure (e.g., Melamed, 1987), respiration (e.g., Ritz, Thons, Fahrenkrug, & Dahme, 2005), heart rate (e.g., Lang et al., 1993), and finger pulse amplitude (FPA; e.g., Gross, 2002).”
Emotion Regulation Abilities and the Quality of Social Interaction.
Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., Côté, S., & Beers, M. (2005) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.113 · Cited by 937
The effects of emotion on attention: A review of attentional processing of emotional information
Yiend, J. (2010) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930903205698 · Cited by 891
“Some researchers have investigated control using explicit instructions to vary attention to emotion (Gross, 2002; Ochsner & Gross, 2005), whereas others have used task manipulations or other implicit means of implementing control (Yiend et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialPain and emotion: a biopsychosocial review of recent research
Lumley, M. A., Cohen, J. L., Borszcz, G. S., Cano, A., Radcliffe, A. M., Porter, L. S., Schubiner, H., & Keefe, F. J. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20816 · Cited by 836
“…of emotional processes is broader than ''emotion regulation''—a label that typically refers only to the attenuation or reduction of emotional experience or expression (Gross, 2002), rather than the fuller range of processes, including enhancing awareness, experiencing, and expression.”
Zaki, J. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0037679 · Cited by 923
“As described by Gross (1998, 2002), emotion regulation encompasses a suite of such goal-driven strategies.”
BackgroundGarland, E. L., Farb, N. A., R. Goldin, P., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2015) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2015.1064294 · Cited by 810
“…such, studies indicate that positive reappraisal has a distinct physiological signature characterized by increased parasympathetic nervous system activation, unlike suppression which leads to a physiological state characterized by sympathetic dominance (Gross, 2002; but see Witvliet et al., 2011).”
BackgroundEmmons, R. A., & Paloutzian, R. F. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145024 · Cited by 868
“The literature on emotion regulation in adulthood (e.g., Gross 2002) might be mined to see what it offers the psychology of religion; conversely, the field of emotion research might profit from a greater awareness of spiritual and religious influences on felt emotions (Hill 1999).”
BackgroundStress-induced obesity and the emotional nervous system
Dallman, M. F. (2010) · Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.tem.2009.10.004 · Cited by 814
Emotion Regulation in Everyday Life.
Gross, J. J., Richards, J. M., & John, O. P. (2006) · Emotion regulation in couples and families: Pathways to dysfunction and health. · doi:10.1037/11468-001 · Cited by 829
“suppression (for a review of these studies, see Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003; John & Gross,”
BackgroundSelf-citationCostafreda, S. G., Brammer, M. J., David, A. S., & Fu, C. H. Y. (2008) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.10.012 · Cited by 772
“Studies used two strategies: reappraisal, in which themeaning of the emotional stimulus was manipulated to enhance the emotional experience; and suppression, in which subjects were asked to ‘distance themselves’ emotionally from the stimuli (Gross, 2002).”
MethodUnderstanding the co-occurrence of anxiety disorders and chronic pain: state-of-the-art
Asmundson, G. J. G., & Katz, J. (2009) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20600 · Cited by 756
Hayes, A. M., & Feldman, G. (2004) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph080 · Cited by 759
“There is now substantial evidence that avoidance and overengagement with emotions are associated with worse psychological and health outcomes (Gross, 2002; Salovey, Rothman, Detweiler, & Steward, 2002; Segerstrom, Stanton, Alden, & Shortridge, 2003).”
BackgroundOn conceptualizing self-control as more than the effortful inhibition of impulses.
Fujita, K. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868311411165 · Cited by 734
“…of an object or event is fundamentally altered upon adoption of alternate construals (also referred to as reappraisals or cognitive transformations; Gross, 2002; Kross, Ayduk, & Mischel, 2005; Liberman, Trope, & Stephan, 2007; Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999; Mischel et al., 1989; Trope & Liberman,…”
BackgroundWu, G., Feder, A., Cohen, H., Kim, J. J., Calderon, S., Charney, D. S., & Mathé, A. A. (2013) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00010 · Cited by 887
“Consciously reassessing adverse or traumatic events to find the silver lining is associated with resilience (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundA framework for studying emotions across species
Anderson, D. J., & Adolphs, R. (2014) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.003 · Cited by 691
“…of a role for prefrontal cortex in such regulation (Ochsner and Gross, 2005) (the issue is somewhat complicated by the fact that humans can regulate their emotions in at least two different ways, cognitive re-interpretation of a situation or active suppression of emotional reactions (Gross, 2002)).”
InfluentialChildhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities
Dvir, Y., Ford, J. D., Hill, M., & Frazier, J. A. (2014) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000014 · Cited by 698
“Both emotional states and goal-directed behavior can be modulated by decreasing negative, or increasing positive, expressive behavior, or by addressing physiological responses—through the use of, for example, cognitive-behavioral therapy or medications that decrease negative affective states such as anxiety and depres…”
BackgroundCampbell, J., & Ehlert, U. (2012) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.12.010 · Cited by 683
“Emotional regulation Emotional suppression seems to increase some measures of physiological activation (Gross, 2002).”
Emotion regulation choice: A conceptual framework and supporting evidence.
Sheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G., Radu, P. T., Blechert, J., & Gross, J. J. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0030831 · Cited by 774
Self-citationJennings, P. A., Frank, J. L., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000035 · Cited by 672
“The ability to reappraise a stressful situation plays an important role in successful selfregulation of emotion (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundDifferential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training
Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Ricard, M., & Singer, T. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst060 · Cited by 676
Acceptance and mindfulness-based therapy: New wave or old hat?
Hofmann, S. G., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2008) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.09.003 · Cited by 665
“Specifically, we adopt the emotion-generative process model by Gross and colleagues (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & John, 2003; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
MethodEhring, T., & Quack, D. (2010) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2010.04.004 · Cited by 668
“There is correlational as well as experimental evidence supporting the classification of emotion suppression as a primarily dysfunctional emotion regulation strategy and reappraisal as a primarily functional one (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
BackgroundInteroception, contemplative practice, and health
Farb, N., Daubenmier, J., Price, C. J., Gard, T., Kerr, C., Dunn, B. D., Klein, A. C., Paulus, M. P., & Mehling, W. E. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00763 · Cited by 650
“For example, regulation could shape interoceptive signals to meet goals through reappraisal, suppression, or distraction, techniques often cited in modern scientific models of emotion regulation (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundJennings, P. A., Brown, J. L., Frank, J. L., Doyle, S., Oh, Y., Davis, R., Rasheed, D., DeWeese, A., DeMauro, A. A., Cham, H., et al. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000187 · Cited by 645
“Emotion expression suppression has been shown to increase stress and impair well-being (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundHofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Fang, A., & Asnaani, A. (2012) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.21888 · Cited by 630
“Emotion regulation has been defined as the process by which people influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express these emotions.[61] Based on this conceptualization, an emotion can be regulated at various stages in the process of emotion generation: (1) selection of the s…”
BackgroundBridgett, D. J., Burt, N. M., Edwards, E. S., & Deater-Deckard, K. D. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0038662 · Cited by 730
Neurocognitive bases of emotion regulation development in adolescence
Ahmed, S. P., Bittencourt-Hewitt, A., & Sebastian, C. L. (2015) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.07.006 · Cited by 621
Montaño, D., Reeske, A., Franke, F., & Hüffmeier, J. (2016) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2124 · Cited by 729
Emotion regulation and the anxiety disorders: An integrative review
Cisler, J. M., Olatunji, B. O., Feldner, M. T., & Forsyth, J. P. (2010) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9161-1 · Cited by 607
“Emotion regulation in the current paper refers to a heterogeneous set of actions that are designed to influence “which emotions we have, when we have them, and how we experience and express them” ( Gross 2002, p. 282 ).”
BackgroundEmotion‐regulation ability, burnout, and job satisfaction among British secondary‐school teachers
Brackett, M. A., Palomera, R., Mojsa‐Kaja, J., Reyes, M. R., & Salovey, P. (2010) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.20478 · Cited by 746
“The strategies that individuals employ to regulate emotions affect their relationships (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundNock, M. K., Wedig, M. M., Holmberg, E. B., & Hooley, J. M. (2007) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2007.05.005 · Cited by 622
“Several different theoretical models have highlighted the importance of both emotion regulation and emotion reactivity in the development and maintenance of psychopathology (Davidson, 2003; Gross, 2002; Porges, DoussardRoosevelt, & Maiti, 1994); however, specific studies of emotion reactivity have been lacking.”
BackgroundReappraisal modulates the electrocortical response to unpleasant pictures
Hajcak, G., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2006) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.6.4.291 · Cited by 613
“…process because it appears to be adaptive: Reappraisal has been shown to successfully reduce negative emotional responses to unpleasant stimuli (Gross, 2002); the tendency to use reappraisal has been related to measures of well-being (Gross & John, 2003; John & Gross, 2004); and this type of…”
InfluentialThe effect of heart rate variability biofeedback training on stress and anxiety: a meta-analysis
Goessl, V. C., Curtiss, J. E., & Hofmann, S. G. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717001003 · Cited by 683
“It has been suggested that stress and negative affect can be improved through adaptive emotion regulation (Gross, 2002; Hofmann, 2014), which is a form of selfregulation that is expressed through certain physiological measures, especially HRV. HRV is a measure of cardiac vagal tone that can be…”
BackgroundThe Role of Mindfulness in Positive Reappraisal
Garland, E., Gaylord, S., & Park, J. (2009) · EXPLORE · doi:10.1016/j.explore.2008.10.001 · Cited by 595
Ehring, T., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Schnülle, J., Fischer, S., & Gross, J. J. (2010) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0019010 · Cited by 587
Self-citationAcceptability and suppression of negative emotion in anxiety and mood disorders.
Campbell-Sills, L., Barlow, D. H., Brown, T. A., & Hofmann, S. G. (2006) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.6.4.587 · Cited by 579
“Keywords: emotion regulation, acceptance, suppression, anxiety disorders, mood disorders Emotion regulation refers to conscious and unconscious processes that influence the occurrence, intensity, duration, and expression of emotion (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialEmotion regulation and aggression
Roberton, T., Daffern, M., & Bucks, R. S. (2011) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2011.09.006 · Cited by 679
“using cognitive reappraisal to eliminate feelings of anxiety in a situation where the individual is at risk of harm (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAre expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal associated with stress-related symptoms?
Moore, S. A., Zoellner, L. A., & Mollenholt, N. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.05.001 · Cited by 653
Sleep and emotions: Bidirectional links and underlying mechanisms
Kahn, M., Sheppes, G., & Sadeh, A. (2013) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.05.010 · Cited by 550
“Similarly, research on emotion regulation has received growing attention and new sophisticated research methods have been developed (e.g., Gross, 1999, 2003; Sheppes et al., 2011).”
MethodWorking memory capacity and the self-regulation of emotional expression and experience.
Schmeichel, B. J., Volokhov, R. N., & Demaree, H. A. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013345 · Cited by 564
Feelings change: Accounting for individual differences in the temporal dynamics of affect.
Kuppens, P., Oravecz, Z., & Tuerlinckx, F. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020962 · Cited by 543
On the embodiment of emotion regulation: interoceptive awareness facilitates reappraisal
Füstös, J., Gramann, K., Herbert, B. M., & Pollatos, O. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss089 · Cited by 530
“It is associated with decreased expressive behavior, reduced emotion experience and increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system (Gross, 2002; Gross and Levenson, 1993).”
BackgroundMinding one’s emotions: Mindfulness training alters the neural expression of sadness.
Farb, N. A. S., Anderson, A. K., Mayberg, H., Bean, J., McKeon, D., & Segal, Z. V. (2010) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0017151 · Cited by 521
“Indeed, studies of emotion regulation have shown that initial reactions to negative affect can determine the intensity of subsequent distress, with important differences between the individual strategies evoked (Gross, 2002).”
Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, emotion, and emotion regulation during social interaction
Butler, E. A., Wilhelm, F. H., & Gross, J. J. (2006) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00467.x · Cited by 520
“Despite these similarities, the two strategies have also been shown to have differential effects on emotional experience and positive expression ( Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe neurobiology of depression and antidepressant action
Willner, P., Scheel-Krüger, J., & Belzung, C. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.12.007 · Cited by 519
Integrating emotion regulation and emotional intelligence traditions: a meta-analysis
Sarrionandia, A., Mikolajczak, M., & Gross, J. J. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00160 · Cited by 634
Self-citationEmotion dysregulation and non-suicidal self-injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Wolff, J. C., Thompson, E., Thomas, S. A., Nesi, J., Bettis, A. H., Ransford, B., Scopelliti, K., Frazier, E. A., & Liu, R. T. (2019) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.03.004 · Cited by 512
Feeding Your Feelings: Emotion Regulation Strategies and Emotional Eating
Evers, C., Stok, F. M., & de Ridder, D. T. D. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210371383 · Cited by 503
“In contrast, suppression is associ ated with increases in physiological responding and decreases in behavioral expression, but it fails to decrease emotion experience (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCutuli, D. (2014) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00175 · Cited by 484
“Two major emotion regulation strategies that have been particularly studied are cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression (Gross and John, 1998).”
BackgroundGoldin, P. R., Manber, T., Hakimi, S., Canli, T., & Gross, J. J. (2009) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.525 · Cited by 486
Self-citationPositive and Negative Emotion Regulation in Adolescence: Links to Anxiety and Depression
Young, K., Sandman, C., & Craske, M. (2019) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci9040076 · Cited by 485
“In line with the process model of emotion regulation [2], Cognitive Bias Modification aims to tap into antecedent-focused regulatory processes such as attentional deployment (Attention Bias Modification) and interpretation/reappraisal (Interpretation Bias Modification).”
MethodEmotional coregulation in close relationships
Butler, E. A., & Randall, A. K. (2013) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073912451630 · Cited by 476
“…suggests that the ability to modulate emotional responding in a way that supports one’s goals and maintains physiological equilibrium is critical for psychological, physical, and social well-being across the lifespan (Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, & Reiser, 2000; Gross, 2002; John & Gross, 2004).”
BackgroundStereotype threat and executive resource depletion: Examining the influence of emotion regulation.
Johns, M., Inzlicht, M., & Schmader, T. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0013834 · Cited by 533
“Unlike response-focused coping , antecedent-focused coping does not bear costs to psychological functioning because it does not require the same amount of online cognitive activity to monitor one's feelings and behavior (Gross, 2002).”
Backgroundvan Gelderen, M., Kautonen, T., & Fink, M. (2015) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2015.01.003 · Cited by 523
Teacher emotions in the classroom and their implications for students
Frenzel, A. C., Daniels, L. M., & Burić, I. (2021) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2021.1985501 · Cited by 612
“From this perspective, the self-monitoring and selfcorrective actions involved in emotion regulation consume cognitive resources and lead to performance impairment (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundIS EMOTIONAL LABOR MORE DIFFICULT FOR SOME THAN FOR OTHERS? A MULTILEVEL, EXPERIENCE‐SAMPLING STUDY
Judge, T. A., Woolf, E. F., & Hurst, C. (2009) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.01129.x · Cited by 477
“In light of evidence that emotion regulation affects emotional experience (see Gross, 2002), it seems likely that mood is not only an outcome of emotional labor but also an important mechanism explaining its link to well-being.”
BackgroundHolzman, J. B., & Bridgett, D. J. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.032 · Cited by 449
Hofmann, S. G., Heering, S., Sawyer, A. T., & Asnaani, A. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.02.010 · Cited by 464
Foti, D., & Hajcak, G. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20066 · Cited by 458
“These emotion regulation strategies, as contrasted with suppression, appear to be effective in decreasing the experience of negative emotions (Hajcak & Nieuwenhuis, 2006; Gross, 2002; Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002) and have no adverse effects on memory (Richards & Gross, 2000).”
BackgroundPelowski, M. J., Markey, P. S., Forster, M., Gerger, G., & Leder, H. (2017) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2017.02.003 · Cited by 492
Haga, S. M., Kraft, P., & Corby, E.-K. (2007) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-007-9080-3 · Cited by 530
“Nevertheless, their means to the same end vary considerably ( Gross 2002 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialMind over matter: reappraising arousal improves cardiovascular and cognitive responses to stress
Jamieson, J. P., Nock, M. K., & Mendes, W. B. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0025719 · Cited by 444
“Thus, consistent with research on emotion regulation (Gross, 2002) and CBT (Hofmann & Smits, 2008), interpretations of bodily signals impact how the body and mind respond to acute stress.”
BackgroundResultAttention training in individuals with generalized social phobia: A randomized controlled trial.
Amir, N., Beard, C., Taylor, C. T., Klumpp, H., Elias, J. A., Burns, M. N., & Chen, X. (2009) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016685 · Cited by 486
“…be expected to allow for increased processing of other types of social information, or may alter the perception of threat early in the appraisal process (e.g., Gross, 2002) before the cascade of maladaptive cognitive, behavioral, and emotional events associated with anxiety is fully activated.”
BackgroundMorawetz, C., Bode, S., Derntl, B., & Heekeren, H. R. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.11.014 · Cited by 458
“, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, distraction, detachment) that are widely used to decrease or increase emotions (Gross, 2002; Koole, 2009), we observed a core network involved in emotion regulation independent of regulation strategies, that consists of the anterior part of the left IFG/VLPFC, bilateral…”
BackgroundInfluentialGreen, M. F. (2005) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbi049 · Cited by 476
Acute Stress Modulates Risk Taking in Financial Decision Making
Porcelli, A. J., & Delgado, M. R. (2009) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02288.x · Cited by 477
“Additionally, research may probe the use of cognitive techniques, such as emotion regulation strategies (Gross, 2002), as a way to overcome increased biases in risk taking resulting from stress.”
BackgroundNeuroticism as a common dimension in the internalizing disorders
Griffith, J. W., Zinbarg, R. E., Craske, M. G., Mineka, S., Rose, R. D., Waters, A. M., & Sutton, J. M. (2010) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291709991449 · Cited by 440
“Emotion regulation refers to biological and psychological processes that influence how emotions are expressed or experienced (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundHerbert, B. M., Herbert, C., & Pollatos, O. (2011) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00717.x · Cited by 437
Regulating Positive and Negative Emotions in Daily Life
Nezlek, J. B., & Kuppens, P. (2008) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00496.x · Cited by 441
Emotional regulation goals and strategies of teachers
Sutton, R. E. (2004) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-004-4229-y · Cited by 439
“In contrast, Gross (2002) argued that emotional regulation is neutral as the same strategies that permit surgeons to be effective during operations may also allow torturers to neutralize their emphatic distress (p. 282).”
BackgroundBrockman, R., Ciarrochi, J., Parker, P., & Kashdan, T. (2017) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2016.1218926 · Cited by 427
“found that emotion suppression is useful when people want to alter their emotion-expressive behaviour, but it fails to provide subjective relief to the experience of negative emotions, and comes with a substantial cost to cognition, physiology and relationship functioning (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialEmotion Regulation Questionnaire – Eine deutschsprachige Fassung des ERQ von Gross und John
Abler, B., & Kessler, H. (2009) · Diagnostica · doi:10.1026/0012-1924.55.3.144 · Cited by 434
Metadata
- Authors
- Gross, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gross, James J.
- ORCID
- Gross, James J.
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 281-291
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2128126978
- Cited by
- 4,890
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 341 · 2025: 492 · 2024: 315 · 2023: 314 · 2022: 321 · 2021: 315 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 267 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 254 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 232 · 2014: 233 · 2013: 228 · 2012: 179
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58147)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, process model of emotion regulation, emotional experience, emotional expression, memory impairment, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Psychophysiology, Social Behavior
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