Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training
Open accessAbstract
Although empathy is crucial for successful social interactions, excessive sharing of others' negative emotions may be maladaptive and constitute a source of burnout. To investigate functional neural plasticity underlying the augmentation of empathy and to test the counteracting potential of compassion, one group of participants was first trained in empathic resonance and subsequently in compassion. In response to videos depicting human suffering, empathy training, but not memory training (control group), increased negative affect and brain activations in anterior insula and anterior midcingulate cortex-brain regions previously associated with empathy for pain. In contrast, subsequent compassion training could reverse the increase in negative effect and, in contrast, augment self-reports of positive affect. In addition, compassion training increased activations in a non-overlapping brain network spanning ventral striatum, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex and medial orbitofrontal cortex. We conclude that training compassion may reflect a new coping strategy to overcome empathic distress and strengthen resilience.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In a longitudinal fMRI training study with an active memory control, empathy training increased negative affect and empathy-related insula/aMCC activations, whereas subsequent compassion training reversed negative affect, increased positive affect, and engaged a non-overlapping mOFC/pACC/ventral striatum network. The authors conclude that compassion training may counteract empathic distress and strengthen resilience.
Key findings
- Empathy training increased self-reported negative affect (t24 = 3.5, P < 0.01) and empathy (t24 = 4.66, P < 0.001); subsequent compassion training decreased negative affect (t24 = 3.04, P < 0.01) and increased positive affect (t24 = 4.25, P < 0.001).
- In response to high-emotion videos, empathy training versus memory training increased activations in insula, aMCC, DLPFC, posterior putamen, pallidum, and head of caudate; activation changes overlapped with meta-analytic empathy-for-pain findings in aMCC and left AI.
- Compassion training versus memory training increased activations in mOFC, pregenual ACC, ventral striatum, and right middle frontal gyrus for high-emotion videos; conjunction analyses showed no significant overlap with empathy-training changes.
- Memory control training improved correctly remembered words and words remembered in the correct position from Pre to Post1 (both t ≥ 4.37, both P < 0.001) and from Post1 to Post2 (both t ≥ 2.35, both P < 0.05), while memory performance did not change in the affect group (all t ≤ 1.35, all P ≥ 0.19).
Methods
- Prospective longitudinal training study: affect group (n = 25 completers of 30; age 25.88 ± 4.32 years) first received empathy training then compassion training; memory control group (n = 28 of 33; age 22.89 ± 4.02 years) received two memory trainings. The sample was restricted to female participants, and groups were recruited and tested sequentially.
- Participants underwent fMRI three times (Pre, Post1, Post2) during a socio-affective video task containing 12 high-emotion and 12 low-emotion videos per parallel set, with ratings of empathy, positive affect, and negative affect; a separate memory task used matched lists of 34 words.
- Analyses used repeated-measures MANOVA/ANOVA with age and depression scores as covariates; whole-brain event-related fMRI at P < 0.05 FWE cluster-level correction; repeated-measures ANOVAs with change (Pre–Post1, Post1–Post2), video type, and group; and conjunction analyses.
Limitations
- Stated: the study only focused on females, so future studies are needed to test whether effects generalize to males; the intervention was probably too short to reveal a robust impact of inter-individual practice differences on neural and experiential changes.
- Stated: groups were recruited and tested sequentially due to temporal and infrastructural constraints; the memory group had selective dropout with higher Beck Depression Inventory scores (dropouts: mean = 7.4, s.d. = 5.6; completers: mean = 3.11, s.d. = 3.49; t31 = 2.31, P < 0.05) and age differences, which were addressed by including age and depression scores as covariates.
- Evident from the text: there was no follow-up beyond Post2; practice duration showed no significant relation with affect changes and did not parametrically modulate neural changes; positive-affect-related neural correlations after empathy training were not significant.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 49 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
Empathy training increased empathy ratings in response to videos depicting human suffering.
“empathy training increased negative affect (t 24 ¼ 3.5, P < 0.01) and empathy (t 24 ¼ 4.66, P < 0.001).”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
“training empathy led to increases in subjective reports of negative affect and empathy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
- Findingown data
Compared with low-emotion videos, high-emotion videos elicited more negative affect.
“compared with LE videos, HE videos elicited more negative affect and empathy and less positive affect (all t 52 !15.82, all P < 0.001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Empathy training increased negative affect in response to videos depicting human suffering, compared with memory training.
“empathy training, but not memory training (control group), increased negative affect and brain activations in anterior insula and anterior midcingulate cortexbrain regions previously associated with empathy for pain.”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
“empathy training increased negative affect (t 24 ¼ 3.5, P < 0.01) and empathy (t 24 ¼ 4.66, P < 0.001).”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
“training empathy led to increases in subjective reports of negative affect and empathy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
- Findingown data
Compassion training increased activations in a nonoverlapping brain network spanning ventral striatum, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex and medial orbitofrontal cortex.
“compassion training increased activations in a nonoverlapping brain network spanning ventral striatum, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex and medial orbitofrontal cortex.”
- Also stated in: § Functional imaging changes · plain
“None of the con- junctions was significant, underlining that patterns of induced functional plasticity after empathy and compassion training were dis- tinct and non-overlapping.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Functional imaging changes · plain
- Findingown data
Compared with low-emotion videos, high-emotion videos elicited more empathy.
“compared with LE videos, HE videos elicited more negative affect and empathy and less positive affect (all t 52 !15.82, all P < 0.001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
Empathy training increased brain activations in anterior insula and anterior midcingulate cortex in response to videos depicting human suffering.
“increased negative affect and brain activations in anterior insula and anterior midcingulate cortexbrain regions previously associated with empathy for pain.”
- Also stated in: § Functional imaging changes · plain
“empathy training augmented activations in brain areas spanning insula, aMCC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), posterior putamen, pallidum and head of caudate (Figure 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Functional imaging changes · plain
- Findingown data
Compassion training augmented self-reports of positive affect.
“subsequent compassion training could reverse the increase in negative effect and, in contrast, augment self-reports of positive affect.”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
“compassion training decreased negative affect (t 24 ¼ 3.04, P < 0.01) and augmented positive affect (t 24 ¼ 4.25, P < 0.001).”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
“positive affect was higher after compassion training (t 51 ¼ 4.37, P < 0.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
- Findingown data
Compared with low-emotion videos, high-emotion videos elicited less positive affect.
“compared with LE videos, HE videos elicited more negative affect and empathy and less positive affect (all t 52 !15.82, all P < 0.001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Subsequent compassion training reversed the increase in negative affect caused by empathy training.
“subsequent compassion training could reverse the increase in negative effect and, in contrast, augment self-reports of positive affect.”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
“compassion training decreased negative affect (t 24 ¼ 3.04, P < 0.01) and augmented positive affect (t 24 ¼ 4.25, P < 0.001).”
- Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
“Adding compassion training strengthened positive affect and reversed the observed increase in negative affect (Figure 2A).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § RESULTS Socio-affective video task · plain
- Findingown data
Activation changes in right anterior insula were parametrically modulated by increases in negative affect and empathy ratings between Pre and Post1, at an uncorrected threshold of P < 0.001.
“Activation changes in right AI were also parametrically modulated by increases in negative affect and empathy ratings between Pre and Post1, albeit at an uncorrected threshold of P < 0.001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The increase in empathy ratings after empathy training correlated with the increase in anterior midcingulate cortex activity.
“the increase in empathy ratings after empathy training (Á1) correlated with the increase in aMCC activity (P < 0.05, FWE corrected, Supplementary Table S3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The observed increases in brain activation after compassion and empathy training also differed with respect to their location in the cingulate cortex.
“The observed increases in brain activation after compassion and empathy training also differed with respect to their location in the cingulate cortex.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In response to high-emotion videos, empathy training augmented activations in brain areas spanning insula, anterior midcingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, posterior putamen, pallidum and head of caudate.
“In response to HE videos (Empathy Á1 HE > Memory Á1 HE), empathy training augmented activations in brain areas spanning insula, aMCC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), posterior putamen, pallidum and head of caudate (Figure 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Practice duration did not parametrically modulate neural changes.
“Practice duration did not parametrically modulate neural changes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Empathy was higher in the affect group compared with the memory group after both trainings.
“empathy was higher in the affect group compared with the memory group after both trainings (both t 51 !3.18, both P < 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant triple interaction for video type × time × group was observed in imaging data.
“no significant triple interaction for video type  time  group was observed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Memory performance did not change in the affect group.
“memory performance did not change in the affect group (all t 1.35, all P !0.19).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The increase in positive affect after compassion training occurred even though participants were still exposed to equally distressing video material.
“Remarkably, the increase in positive affect occurred even though participants were still exposed to equally distressing video material.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The video material remained equally distressing across the training time points.
- Findingown data
Compassion training induced activations in a non-overlapping network spanning mOFC, pregenual ACC and ventral striatum.
“Subsequent compassion training induced activations in a non-overlapping network spanning mOFC, pregenual ACC and ventral striatum.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“On the neural level, compassion training increased brain activations in mOFC, pregenual ACC and striatum”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“In contrast to empathy training, cultivating feelings of kindness, warmth and concern induced non-overlapping brain changes in mOFC, pACC and striatum.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The prior empathy training in the affect group did not confound the effects attributed to subsequent compassion training.
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
- Findingcitation
Activation changes for high-emotion videos after empathy training overlapped with meta-analytic findings on empathy for pain in anterior midcingulate cortex and left anterior insula.
“activation changes for HE videos after empathy training overlapped with metaanalytic findings on empathy for pain (Lamm et al., 2011) in aMCC and left AI (Figure 3A).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lamm et al., 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
None of the contrasts comparing changes induced by memory training with changes induced by affect training revealed significant activations.
“None of the contrasts comparing changes induced by memory training with changes induced by affect training revealed significant activations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Observed changes in brain activation after empathy and compassion training revealed distinct patterns of functional brain plasticity.
“In summary, observed changes in brain activation after empathy and compassion training revealed distinct patterns of functional brain plasticity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Empathy training led to an increase of activation in aMCC.
“Empathy training led to an increase of activation in aMCC.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In response to high-emotion videos, compassion training augmented activity in medial orbitofrontal cortex, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, ventral striatum and right middle frontal gyrus.
“in response to HE videos, compassion training augmented activity in mOFC, pACC, ventral striatum and right middle frontal gyrus.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The study found evidence for different patterns of emotional experiences and neural plasticity associated with sequential training of empathy and compassion within the same participants.
“Indeed, we found evidence for different patterns of emotional experiences and neural plasticity associated with the sequential training of these two social emotions within the same participants”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The memory group performed better than the affect group at Post1 and Post2 on both memory measures.
“the memory group performed better than the affect group at Post1 and at Post2 on both dependent measures (all t !3.43, all P < 0.01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
The effects of empathy training overlapped with previous peak activations in AI and aMCC as identified in a meta-analysis on cross-sectional empathy for pain studies.
“The effects of empathy training overlapped with previous peak activations in AI and aMCC as identified in a meta-analysis on crosssectional empathy for pain studies (Lamm et al., 2011).”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“Importantly, and as illustrated in Figure 3A, activations in AI and aMCC were concordant with peak activations identified in a metaanalysis performed over more than 30 cross-sectional studies on empathy for pain (Lamm et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lamm et al., 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
- Findingown data
Empathy ratings for low-emotion videos were higher in the affect group than in the memory group when combining all three time points.
“when combining all three time points, empathy ratings for LE videos were higher in the affect group than in the memory group (t 51 ¼ 3.68, P < 0.01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Negative affect decreased from Post1 to Post2 in the memory group.
“Paired t-tests in the memory group showed that negative affect decreased from Post1 to Post2 (t 27 ¼ 3.17, P < 0.01).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Activation changes stemming from empathy training were not limited to AI, but instead spanned the entire insular cortex.
“However, the activation changes stemming from empathy training were not limited to AI, but instead spanned the entire insular cortex.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Positive affect was higher after compassion training in the affect group compared with the memory group.
“positive affect was higher after compassion training (t 51 ¼ 4.37, P < 0.001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Activity changes in left supramarginal gyrus were linearly modulated by changes in negative affect ratings after compassion training.
“activity changes in the left supramarginal gyrus (P < 0.05, FWE corrected) were linearly modulated by changes in negative affect ratings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant correlations were found for changes in positive affect ratings after empathy training.
“No significant correlations were found for changes in positive affect ratings after empathy training.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
No significant relation was found between change in affect ratings and self-reported practice duration in the affect group.
“Pearson correlations between the change in affect ratings and self-reports of practice duration in the affect group revealed no significant relation (all P !0.1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Training compassion can foster emotional well-being.
“training compassion can foster emotional well-being (Fredrickson et al., 2008)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fredrickson et al., 2008 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductcitation
The sample was restricted to female participants to control for possible gender effects.
“As gender differences in social emotions were observed in previous neuroscientific research (e.g.Singer et al., 2006), we decided to control for possible gender effects by restricting our sample to female participants only.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Singer et al., 2006 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Compassion is accompanied by activations in regions typically associated with reward, love and affiliation.
“several cross-sectional studies (Lutz et al., 2008;Beauregard et al., 2009;Immordino-Yang et al., 2009;Kim et al., 2009) and one short-term longitudinal study performed by our group (Klimecki et al., 2012) suggest that compassion is accompanied by activations in regions typically associated with reward, love and affiliation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Intense sharing of another's pain can be a primary cause for empathic distress and decreased helping behavior.
“intense sharing of the other's pain can be a primary cause for empathic distress and decreased helping behavior (Batson et al., 1987;Eisenberg et al., 1989).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Study design and conductcitation
Unspecific effects introduced by training in groups and by repeated measurements were controlled by including an active control group that received memory training using the Method of Loci.
“Unspecific effects introduced by training in groups and by repeated measurements were controlled by including an active control group that received memory training using the Method of Loci (Bower, 1970).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bower, 1970
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Empathic responses to witnessing another in pain are usually experienced as aversive.
“empathic responses to witnessing another in pain are usually experienced as aversive (Lamm et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lamm et al., 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Training compassion can foster prosocial behavior.
“prosocial behavior (Leiberg et al., 2011)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Leiberg et al., 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductown data
Five participants who dropped out of the memory control group had higher Beck's Depression Inventory scores than those who completed the study.
“The five persons who dropped out in the memory control group had higher scores on the Beck's Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1996) than those who completed the study (t 31 ¼ 2.31, P < 0.05, dropouts: mean ¼ 7.4, s.d.¼ 5.6; completers: mean ¼ 3.11, s.d.¼ 3.49).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Beck et al., 1996 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Activations in the head of caudate and VTA occurred when participants applied unconditional love toward pictures of intellectually disabled individuals.
“In addition, activations in the head of caudate and VTA occurred when participants applied unconditional love toward pictures of intellectually disabled individuals (Beauregard et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Beauregard et al., 2009 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
A recent meta-analysis of 939 studies found that aMCC is crucial for processing negative affect, pain and cognitive control.
“A recent meta-analysis of 939 studies (Shackman et al., 2011) found that aMCC is crucial for processing negative affect, pain and cognitive control.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shackman et al., 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationcitation
The observed activation increases in DLPFC and middle temporal gyrus align with previous findings on emotion regulation, cognitive control and pain processing.
“The observed activation increases in DLPFC and middle temporal gyrus align with previous findings on emotion regulation (Kalisch, 2009), cognitive control (Beckmann et al., 2009;Mansouri et al., 2009;Shackman et al., 2011) and pain processing (Beckmann et al., 2009;Shackman et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
The present results mirror previous findings on the effects of short-term compassion training in a network involving mOFC, striatum and VTS/SN.
“Finally, the present results mirror our previous findings on the effects of short-term compassion training (Klimecki et al., 2012) in a network involving mOFC, striatum and VTS/SN.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Klimecki et al., 2012
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
The intervention was probably too short to reveal a robust impact of inter-individual practice differences on neural and experiential changes.
“The intervention was probably too short to reveal a robust impact of inter-individual practice differences on neural and experiential changes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
This accords with a key role of insular cortex in integrating interoceptive information.
“This accords with a key role of insular cortex in integrating interoceptive information (Craig, 2009;Lamm and Singer, 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Study design and conductown data
The affect and memory groups did not differ before training on affect ratings.
“the groups did not differ before training (all t 0.29, all P !0.77)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Animal models distinguish between different affective and motivational systems such as panic and care systems that rely on distinct brain networks and neurotransmitter systems.
“Furthermore, animal models distinguish between different affective and motivational systems such as panic and care systems that rely on distinct brain networks and neurotransmitter systems (Panksepp, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Panksepp, 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationcitation
These findings extend previous functional imaging findings on compassion in cross-sectional studies and one short-term intervention study from our group.
“These findings extend previous functional imaging findings on compassion in cross-sectional studies (Beauregard et al., 2009;Kim et al., 2009) and one short-term intervention study from our group (Klimecki et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
The generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect.
“Taken together, this suggests that the generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect (Gross, 2002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gross, 2002 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductnone given
The study only focused on females.
“As this study only focused on females, future studies are needed to address whether the observed training effects can also be generalized to the male population.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Functional neural changes related to empathy and compassion training were assessed in comparison with the memory control group at P < 0.05, FWE corrected.
“Functional neural changes related to empathy (blue) and compassion training (red) in comparison with the memory control group (P < 0.05, FWE corrected).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
This part of cingulate cortex was found to be highly connected to dorsal prefrontal regions.
“In addition, this part of cingulate cortex was found to be highly connected to dorsal prefrontal regions (Beckmann et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Beckmann et al., 2009 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductnone given
The study used an active memory control group.
“The goal of this short-term affective intervention study with an active memory control group was to dissociate empathy and compassion”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The present findings reveal that already short-term affective intervention programs can induce reliable experiential and neural plasticity.
“In summary, the present findings reveal that already short-term affective intervention programs can induce reliable experiential and neural plasticity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Compassion may represent a very potent strategy for preventing burnout.
“Compassion may, therefore, represent a very potent strategy for preventing burnout.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The prior empathy training in the affect group did not confound the effects attributed to subsequent compassion training.
- Premisecitation
This part of the cingulate cortex was shown to be highly connected with ventral striatum and OFC.
“Consistent with this notion, this part of the cingulate cortex was shown to be highly connected with ventral striatum and OFC (Beckmann et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Beckmann et al., 2009 source
Not checked in the free run.
- May combine two claims. 20
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataCompassion training decreased negative affect back to baseline levels and increased positive affect.
“Importantly, compassion training reversed these effects: it decreased negative affect back to baseline levels and increased positive affect.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“compassion training counteracted this effect: it increased positive affect and decreased negative affect back to baseline levels.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“Positive affect only increased after compassion training.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The prior empathy training in the affect group did not confound the effects attributed to subsequent compassion training.
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataNone of the conjunction analyses of equivalent empathy- and compassion-related contrasts was significant, indicating that patterns of induced functional plasticity after empathy and compassion training were distinct and non-overlapping.
“None of the con- junctions was significant, underlining that patterns of induced functional plasticity after empathy and compassion training were dis- tinct and non-overlapping.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAnalyses of subjective ratings revealed that empathy training led to an increase in empathy and negative affect in response to both LE and HE videos.
“The analyses of subjective ratings revealed that empathy training led to an increase in empathy and negative affect in response to both, LE and HE videos.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataEmpathy training, but not memory training, increased activations in insula, temporal gyrus, operculum, posterior putamen, pallidum, thalamus and head of caudate.
“Empathy training, but not memory training [Empathy (Á1 LE and Á1 HE) > Memory (Á1 LE and Á1 HE)], increased activations in insula, temporal gyrus, operculum, posterior putamen, pallidum, thalamus and head of caudate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataNo significant effects were found for changes in empathy ratings or positive affect ratings after compassion training.
“No significant effects were found for changes in empathy ratings or positive affect ratings after compassion training.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataEmpathy training, but not memory training, induced functional plasticity in a network spanning insula, aMCC, temporal gyrus, operculum, DLPFC, posterior putamen, pallidum and head of caudate.
“In addition, watching others' suffering after empathy training was associated with activations in a network spanning insula, aMCC, temporal gyrus, DLPFC, operculum and parts of basal ganglia.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“On the neural level, we obtained evidence that short-term empathy training, but not memory training, induced functional plasticity in a network spanning insula, aMCC, temporal gyrus, operculum, DLPFC, posterior putamen, pallidum and head of caudate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataA short-term training in empathy increased empathic responses and negative affect in response to others' distress.
“a short-term training in empathy increased empathic responses and negative affect in response to others' distress.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
“Self-reported empathy and negative affect significantly increased after empathy training.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningTraining empathy in this study increased activations in both aMCC and DLPFC.
“In keeping with this structural connectivity, training empathy in this study increased activations in both aMCC and DLPFC.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMemory, but not affect training, improved the number of correctly remembered words and the number of words remembered in the correct position.
“Memory, but not affect training, improved the number of correctly remembered words and the number of words remembered in the correct position.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAffiliative memories in mammals rely on a circuitry that includes medial orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum and ventral tegmental area.
“affiliative memories in mammals seem to rely on a circuitry that includes mOFC, ventral striatum and ventral tegmental area (Depue and Morrone-Strupinsky, 2005).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Depue and Morrone-Strupinsky, 2005 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataTraining compassion may reflect a new coping strategy to overcome empathic distress and strengthen resilience.
“We conclude that training compassion may reflect a new coping strategy to overcome empathic distress and strengthen resilience.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataNo other selective dropouts were observed in the memory control group and no selective dropouts occurred in the affect group.
“No other selective dropouts were observed in the memory control group and no selective dropouts occurred in the affect group.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningParticipants saw one of three parallel video sets matched for valence, arousal and empathy at Pre, Post1 and Post2 to avoid habituation and repetition.
“To avoid habituation and repetition, participants saw one of three parallel video sets matched for valence, arousal and empathy at Pre, Post1 and Post2, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationEmpathy for pain crucially involves anterior insula and anterior midcingulate cortex.
“Two recent cross-sectional meta-analyses suggest that empathy for pain crucially involves anterior insula (AI) and anterior midcingulate cortex (aMCC) (Fan et al., 2011;Lamm et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationNegative affect often covaries with activations in anterior insula and anterior midcingulate cortex.
“negative affect often covaries with activations in AI and aMCC (Lamm et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lamm et al., 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationTraining compassion can foster positive emotions.
“positive emotions (Klimecki et al., 2012)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Klimecki et al., 2012
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May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataTraining empathy not only induced a stronger sharing of painful and distressing experiences, but also increased susceptibility to feel negative affect in response to everyday life situations.
“This suggests that training empathy not only induced a stronger sharing of painful and distressing experiences, but also increased the susceptibility to feel negative affect in response to everyday life situations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningAcknowledging the negative experience of others rather than suppressing it may be a crucial prerequisite for the development of prosocial motivation and helping behavior.
“Furthermore, acknowledging the negative experience of others rather than suppressing it may be a crucial prerequisite for the development of prosocial motivation and helping behavior.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationActivations in prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum have been related more specifically to maternal affiliation, as well as to maternal and romantic love.
“In addition to this convergence with previous neuroimaging findings on positive affect and reward, activations in prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum have been related more specifically to maternal affiliation (Strathearn et al., 2009), as well as to maternal and romantic love (Bartels and Zeki, 2004).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationActivation in AI and aMCC has repeatedly been observed to covary with negative affect ratings, both during self-experienced pain and when observing others suffering.
“Moreover, activation in AI and aMCC has repeatedly been observed to covary with negative affect ratings, both during self-experienced pain and when observing others suffering (Jackson et al., 2005;Cheng et al., 2007;Lamm et al., 2007;Saarela et al., 2007;Singer et al., 2008;Akitsuki and Decety, 2009).”
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PremisecitationThe frequency of helping behavior can be increased with a similar short-term compassion training.
“Accordingly, it has recently been shown that the frequency of helping behavior can indeed be increased with a similar short-term compassion training (Leiberg et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Leiberg et al., 2011 source
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InterpretationreasoningThe generation of compassion focuses on strengthening positive affect, while not ignoring the presence of suffering or changing the negative reality.
“Thus, the generation of compassion focuses on strengthening positive affect, while not ignoring the presence of suffering or changing the negative reality.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataOur results suggest that empathy and compassion indeed rely on antagonistic affective systems and that even short-term training of compassion has the potential to counteract empathic distress.
“In line with this notion, our results suggest that empathy and compassion indeed rely on antagonistic affective systems and that even short-term training of compassion has the potential to counteract empathic distress.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The prior empathy training in the affect group did not confound the effects attributed to subsequent compassion training.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationStudies in rodents and other mammals suggest that the formation of affiliative memories relies on a circuitry comprising mOFC, ventral striatum and ventral tegmental area.
“Similarly, studies in rodents and other mammals suggest that the formation of affiliative memories relies on a circuitry comprising mOFC, ventral striatum and ventral tegmental area (Depue and Morrone-Strupinsky, 2005).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Depue and Morrone-Strupinsky, 2005 source
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PremisecitationThe distinction between empathy and compassion networks is paralleled by recent neuroscientific evidence that social connectedness is associated with activations in ventromedial prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum, whereas social disconnection is associated with activations in AI and dorsal ACC.
“Interestingly, this distinction is paralleled by recent neuroscientific evidence which indicates that social connectedness is typically associated with activations in brain regions that comprise ventromedial prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum, whereas social disconnection is rather associated with activations in AI and dorsal ACC (for review, see Eisenberger and Cole, 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Eisenberger and Cole, 2012 source
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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationmOFC, pACC and ventral striatum activations have been shown to be centrally implicated in reward processing as well as in the experience of pleasure and positive affect.
“In general, mOFC, pACC and ventral striatum activations have been shown to be centrally implicated in reward processing (Haber and Knutson, 2010) as well as in the experience of pleasure and positive affect (Kringelbach and Berridge, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Haber and Knutson, 2010 source
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- cites Kringelbach and Berridge, 2009
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationViewing sad facial expressions with a compassionate stance was observed to activate ventral striatum and VTA/SN.
“For example, viewing sad facial expressions with a compassionate stance was observed to activate ventral striatum and VTA/SN (Kim et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kim et al., 2009 source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationActivations in AI and aMCC are parametrically modulated by individual differences in empathic experiences for distressing videos in the SoVT.
“Finally, we previously observed that activations in AI and aMCC are parametrically modulated by individual differences in empathic experiences for distressing videos in the SoVT (Klimecki et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Klimecki et al., 2012
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Interpretationown dataThese results align with and extend previous cross-sectional meta-analytic findings on a crucial role of insula and aMCC in empathy for pain.
“These results align with and extend previous crosssectional meta-analytic findings on a crucial role of insula and aMCC in empathy for pain (Fan et al., 2011;Lamm et al., 2011)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataTraining two seemingly similar social emotions altered brain activation in non-overlapping neural networks and changed affective responses of opposing valence.
“More importantly, we could show that training two seemingly similar social emotions altered brain activation in non-overlapping neural networks and changed affective responses of opposing valence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe comparison of cingulate cortex locations from fMRI studies on reward processing revealed a more anterior activation, which converges with the present observation of pACC involvement in compassion.
“The comparison of cingulate cortex locations from fMRI studies on reward processing revealed a more anterior activation (Beckmann et al., 2009), which converges with the present observation of pACC involvement in compassion.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Beckmann et al., 2009 source
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PremisecitationA different meta-analysis reported that aMCC is implicated in processing pain, conflict monitoring and error detection.
“Converging results were provided by a different meta-analysis (Beckmann et al., 2009) which reported that aMCC is implicated in processing pain, conflict monitoring and error detection.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Beckmann et al., 2009 source
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The paper relies on this without support.
The video material remained equally distressing across the training time points.
“Remarkably, the increase in positive affect occurred even though participants were still exposed to equally distressing video material.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The prior empathy training in the affect group did not confound the effects attributed to subsequent compassion training.
“This longitudinal training study consisted of two groups: the affect group, which first received empathy training and subsequently compassion training, and the memory control group, which received two memory trainings.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Clinicians themselves are found to experience less distress and greater reward.
“Clinicians themselves are also found to experience less distress and greater reward [3–5].”
From Interventions to address empathy-based stress in mental health workers: A scoping review and research agenda (2024) · cites this paper as [3]
The Results and Discussion report that compassion training reduced negative affect, increased positive affect, and increased activation in brain regions associated with reward. But the Methods describe female participants recruited for mental-training studies, not clinicians; the Discussion presents health-care applications as a future possibility. The paper therefore does not establish that clinicians themselves experienced these effects. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCompassion (affect-sharing with motivation to help) may strengthen personal resources and promote positive outcomes.
“while compassion (affect-sharing with motivation to help) may strengthen personal resources and promote positive outcomes (e.g., Klimecki et al., 2014; Singer & Klimecki, 2014).”
From A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors (2018) · cites this paper as Klimecki et al., 2014
The Introduction says compassion is concern for others’ suffering associated with motivation to help, and describes it as a promising way to strengthen personal resources. The Discussion reports increased positive affect after compassion training. However, the paper characterizes sharing others’ painful feelings as empathy, which it distinguishes from compassion; it does not support the parenthetical definition of compassion as affect-sharing. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the same experiment, Loving-kindness meditation training could reverse these effects by activating neural networks related to positive emotions, affiliation and love, together with an augmentation of positive feelings.
“Conversely, the Loving-kindness meditation training could reverse these effects by activating neural networks related to positive emotions, affiliation and love, together with an augmentation of positive feelings.”
Empathy (affect-sharing) may increase personal distress and reduce pro-social behavior.
“Empathy (affect-sharing) may increase personal distress and reduce pro-social behavior”
From A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors (2018) · cites this paper as Klimecki et al., 2014
The socio-affective video task has previously been successfully used in Compassion research and is optimized to elicit extended negative affect of a social nature.
“This task has previously been successfully used in previous Compassion research and is optimized to elicit extended negative affect of a social nature.”
From Compassion-based emotion regulation up-regulates experienced positive affect and associated neural networks (2015) · cites this paper as Klimecki et al., 2014
Developing caring and compassion-focused motives for self and others has a range of benefits: on genetic expression, physiological processes, psychological processes, and social relationships.
“The impetus for this research was inspired by a wealth of research showing e that developing caring and compassion-focused motives for self and others has a range of benefits: on genetic expression [14, 31, 109], physiological processes [9, 68, 71, 73, 107, 108], psychological processes [63, 64, 66, 108], and social relationships [16, 18, 100].”
From The development of compassionate engagement and action scales for self and others (2017) · cites this paper as [71]
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- Salzberg, 2002, Loving-kindness: The Revolutionary Art of Happiness
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“Compassion further involves orbitofrontal cortices and ACC, as well as subcortical structures such as the ventral striatum and ventral tegmental area (18, 22, 23).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe effect of loving-kindness meditation on positive emotions: a meta-analytic review
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“Practicing compassion also has an impact on neurophysiology due to neuroplasticity (27), with a recent study showing that it has significant impacts on HRV (Matos et al.”
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Differential benefits of mental training types for attention, compassion, and theory of mind
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Self-citationCompassion training in healthcare: what are patients’ perspectives on training healthcare providers?
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Self-citationInteracting and dissociable effects of alexithymia and depression on empathy
Banzhaf, C., Hoffmann, F., Kanske, P., Fan, Y., Walter, H., Spengler, S., Schreiter, S., Singer, T., & Bermpohl, F. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.10.045 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationModels, Mechanisms and Moderators Dissociating Empathy and Theory of Mind
Kanske, P., Böckler, A., & Singer, T. (2015) · Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2015_412 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationCan Compassion Meditation Contribute to the Development of Psychotherapists’ Empathy? A Review
Bibeau, M., Dionne, F., & Leblanc, J. (2016) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-015-0439-y · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Bornemann, B., Kok, B. E., Böckler, A., & Singer, T. (2016) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.07.004 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationMindfulness meditation regulates anterior insula activity during empathy for social pain.
Laneri, D., Krach, S., Paulus, F. M., Kanske, P., Schuster, V., Sommer, J., & Müller‐Pinzler, L. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23646 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Cognitive and Neural Correlates of Loneliness and Wisdom during Emotional Bias
Grennan, G., Balasubramani, P. P., Alim, F., Zafar-Khan, M., Lee, E. E., Jeste, D. V., & Mishra, J. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab012 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
McCall, C., Steinbeis, N., Ricard, M., & Singer, T. (2014) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00424 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
The neural mediators of kindness-based meditation: a theoretical model
Mascaro, J. S., Darcher, A., Negi, L. T., & Raison, C. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00109 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Sustainable Compassion Training: Integrating Meditation Theory With Psychological Science
Condon, P., & Makransky, J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02249 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Mindfulness and Empathy: Differential Effects of Explicit and Implicit Buddhist Teachings
Bayot, M., Vermeulen, N., Kever, A., & Mikolajczak, M. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-0966-4 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Grynberg, D., & Konrath, S. (2020) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103175 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Chou, C., Tsoh, J. Y., Shumway, M., Smith, L. C., Chan, J., Delucchi, K., Tirch, D., Gilbert, P., & Mathews, C. A. (2020) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12228 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Godara, M., Silveira, S., Matthäus, H., Heim, C., Voelkle, M., Hecht, M., Binder, E. B., & Singer, T. (2021) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0256323 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationMoyano, N., Perez-Yus, M. C., Herrera-Mercadal, P., Navarro-Gil, M., Valle, S., & Montero-Marin, J. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02433-9 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Affect and motivation are critical in constructive meditation
Engen, H. G., & Singer, T. (2016) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.11.004 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychosocial Effects of a Holistic Ayurvedic Approach to Well-being in Health and Wellness Courses
Patel, S., Klagholz, S., Peterson, C. T., Weiss, L., Chopra, D., & Mills, P. J. (2019) · Global Advances In Health and Medicine · doi:10.1177/2164956119843814 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Neural effects of oxytocin and mimicry in frontotemporal dementia: A randomized crossover study
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Klimecki, O. M., Vuilleumier, P., & Sander, D. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0151028 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Silveira, S., Godara, M., & Singer, T. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/45027 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationTrait empathy shapes neural responses toward sad music
Taruffi, L., Skouras, S., Pehrs, C., & Koelsch, S. (2021) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-020-00861-x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Hildebrandt, L. K., McCall, C., & Singer, T. (2019) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000518 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationMoore, S. K., Okst, K., Smith, L., Fatkin, T., Creedon, T., Fredericksen, A. K., Gawande, R., & Schuman-Olivier, Z. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.780383 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
de Krijger, E., Willems, R., ten Klooster, P., Bakker, E., Miedema, H., Drossaert, C., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.895850 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
May, H., Millar, J., Griffith, E., Gillmore, C., Kristoffersen, M., Robinson, R., & West, M. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0306757 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Ricard, M., & Singer, T.
- Affiliations
- University of Geneva (CH)
- Venue
- Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2013-05-09
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 873-879
- ISSN
- 1749-5016 (ISSN-L)
- 1749-5024
- PMC
- PMC4040103
- OpenAlex
- W2147390495
- Semantic Scholar
- 10027eff4f23a6eb9f0b6b76c8afbbd90f8d9fc7
- Cited by
- 676
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 77 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 63 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 71 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 36.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) (publishedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung
- Universität Zürich
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (205557)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Empathy and Medical Education
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Keywords
- compassion training, empathy training, empathic distress, burnout, anterior insula, anterior midcingulate cortex, empathy for pain, ventral striatum, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, medial orbitofrontal cortex, positive affect, negative affect, resilience, coping strategies
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Affect, Brain, Brain Mapping, Empathy, Female, Humans, Learning, Longitudinal Studies, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Neural Pathways, Neuronal Plasticity, Neuropsychological Tests, Photic Stimulation, Social Perception, Video Recording, Visual Perception, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Young Adult, Self Report
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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