Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences.
Open accessAbstract
One of life's great challenges is successfully regulating emotions. Do some emotion regulation strategies have more to recommend them than others? According to Gross's (1998, Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299) process model of emotion regulation, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have a different profile of consequences than strategies that act later on. This review focuses on two commonly used strategies for down-regulating emotion. The first, reappraisal, comes early in the emotion-generative process. It consists of changing the way a situation is construed so as to decrease its emotional impact. The second, suppression, comes later in the emotion-generative process. It consists of inhibiting the outward signs of inner feelings. Experimental and individual-difference studies find reappraisal is often more effective than suppression. Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory. By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory. Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners. This review concludes with a consideration of five important directions for future research on emotion regulation processes.
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- Findingown data§ Abstract · p. 1
Suppression does not reduce negative emotion experience.
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5 · plain
“It is noteworthy that whereas suppressing negative emotionexpressive behavior has no discernible impact on negative emotion experience ~ e.g., disgust, sadness, embarrassment ! , suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior does have an impact on positive emotion experience ~ e.g., amusement ! .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
- Findingown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6
Reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.
“By contrast, reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5
Suppression is associated with lesser negative emotion expressive behavior.
“Relations between suppression and negative emotion expression also followed expectations, with suppression being associated with lesser negative emotion expressive behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5
Reappraisal increases positive emotion experience.
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Abstract · p. 1
Reappraisal reduces negative emotion experience.
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
- Findingown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 6
Individuals scoring higher on either of the two suppression scales reported worse memory than those scoring lower on those scales.
“we found that individuals who scored higher on either of the two suppression scales reported having worse memory that those who scored lower on these suppression scales”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Abstract · p. 1
Suppression impairs memory.
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
“As predicted, results indicated that suppression led to reliable decrements ~ compared to the control condition ! in both objective memory and memory confidence ratings.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“As predicted, suppression participants performed less well on the verbal memory test than control participants.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
- Findingown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 6
Higher suppression scorers performed worse on an objective memory test requiring recall of events they had listed in a daily diary one week earlier.
“They also performed worse on an objective memory test in which they were asked to recall events they had listed in a daily diary 1 week earlier.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4
Reappraisal had no observable consequences for sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular or electrodermal systems.
“Unlike suppression, however, reappraisal had no observable consequences in terms of sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular or electrodermal systems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6
Suppression's effect on verbal memory was as strong for low-emotion slides as for high-emotion slides.
“Importantly, suppression's effect on verbal memory was just as pronounced for the low-emotion as for the high-emotion slides, suggesting that it is the process of engaging in suppression that is cognitively costly, rather than the amount of emotion that is actually suppressed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5
Suppression is associated with lower positive emotion expression.
“As predicted, suppression was associated with lower levels of positive emotion experience and expression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
There were no blood pressure differences between partners of reappraising participants and partners of participants acting naturally.
“There were no blood pressure differences between partners of participants who were reappraising and partners of participants who were acting naturally.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4
Suppressing sadness and amusement led to increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system, indexed by finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.
“Consistent with expectations, suppressing sadness and amusement led to increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system, as indexed by changes in finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times to the finger and ear.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gross and Levenson, 1997 source
- Findingown data§ Abstract · p. 1
Suppression increases physiological responding in suppressors.
“Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Suppression decreased disgust-expressive behavior, and increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular and electrodermal systems ~ Figure 2 ! .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
- Findingown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6
Suppression has no reliable impact on nonverbal memory.
“Interestingly, suppression had no reliable impact on nonverbal memory,”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5
Reappraisal is associated with lesser negative emotion expression.
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5
Suppression reduces positive emotion experience.
“It is noteworthy that whereas suppressing negative emotionexpressive behavior has no discernible impact on negative emotion experience ~ e.g., disgust, sadness, embarrassment ! , suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior does have an impact on positive emotion experience ~ e.g., amusement ! .”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
“As predicted, suppression was associated with lower levels of positive emotion experience and expression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
- Findingown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5
A neutral film produced low levels of self-reported emotion and nonemotional expressive behavior such as lip biting and yawning.
“This film produced low levels of self-reported emotion and nonemotional expressive behavior such as lip biting and yawning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Abstract · p. 1
Reappraisal reduces behavioral expression of emotion.
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Like suppression, reappraisal decreased expressive behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
- Findingown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 6
Individual differences in reappraisal had no effect on either self-reported or objective memory.
“individual differences in reappraisal had no effects on either self-reported or objective memory”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
Partners of suppression participants showed greater increases in blood pressure than partners of participants who reappraised or acted naturally.
“partners of suppression participants showed greater increases in blood pressure than partners of participants who were either reappraising or acting naturally”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6
Suppression participants performed less well on verbal memory than control participants.
“As predicted, suppression participants performed less well on the verbal memory test than control participants.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Abstract · p. 1
Reappraisal has no impact on memory.
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“By contrast, reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
- Findingnone given§ Abstract · p. 1
Suppression increases physiological responding in the social partners of suppressors.
“Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Abstract · p. 1
Suppression reduces behavioral expression of emotion.
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Suppression decreased disgust-expressive behavior, and increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular and electrodermal systems ~ Figure 2 ! .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
- Findingown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5
Reappraisal is associated with greater positive emotion expression.
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6
Suppression led to reliable decrements in objective memory and memory confidence compared to control.
“As predicted, results indicated that suppression led to reliable decrements ~ compared to the control condition ! in both objective memory and memory confidence ratings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Abstract · p. 1
Experimental and individual-difference studies indicate that reappraisal is often more effective than suppression.
“Experimental and individual-difference studies find reappraisal is often more effective than suppression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5
The physiological impact of emotion suppression arises from opposing attempts to inhibit expression against strong impulses to express.
“This finding shows that the physiological impact of emotion suppression grows out of the counterpoising of attempts to inhibit expression against strong impulses to express.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ A Process Model of Emotion Regulation · p. 2
Emotion regulation strategies differ in when they have their primary impact on the emotion-generative process.
“The fundamental claim of this model is that emotion regulation strategies differ in when they have their primary impact on the emotion-generative process, as shown in Figure 1.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gross, 1998b; 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ Emotion, Emotion Regulation, and Psychopathology · p. 8
Emotion dysregulation is a prominent feature of many forms of psychopathology.
“Emotion dysregulation is a prominent feature of many forms of psychopathology”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites American Psychiatric Association, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Cognitive Consequences · p. 6
Reappraisal typically does not require continual self-regulatory effort during an emotional event.
“Therefore, this strategy typically does not require continual self-regulatory effort during an emotional event.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Emotion, Emotion Regulation, and Psychopathology · p. 8
Individuals with Major Depressive Disorder have decreased emotional reactivity while viewing negative and positive emotional films.
“individuals with Major Depressive Disorder have decreased emotional reactivity while viewing negative and positive emotional films”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rottenberg, Kasch, Gross, & Gotlib, in press
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
Interacting with a partner who shows little positive emotion and is unresponsive to emotional cues is more physiologically activating than interacting with a partner who shows greater positive emotion and responsiveness.
“interacting with a partner who shows little positive emotion, and who is unresponsive to emotional cues, is more physiologically activating than interacting with a partner who shows greater positive emotion and responsiveness”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Affective Consequences · p. 3
Subjects instructed to respond with neutral facial expressions to pleasant and unpleasant films had lesser increases in composite physiological arousal than subjects instructed to respond naturally.
“Zuckerman, Klorman, Larrance, and Spiegel ~ 1981 ! found that subjects instructed to respond with neutral facial expressions to pleasant and unpleasant films had lesser increases in a composite measure of physiological arousal than subjects instructed to respond naturally.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Zuckerman, Klorman, Larrance, and Spiegel, 1981 source
- Interpretationreasoning§ Affective Consequences · p. 3
Leading participants to view the film less negatively decreased the stressfulness of the experience.
“These findings suggest that leading participants to view the film less negatively decreased the stressfulness of what otherwise would have been a quite distressing experience.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5
Suppression and reappraisal have strikingly divergent consequences for affective responding.
“Together with the experimental findings described above, these findings provide strong evidence that suppression and reappraisal have strikingly divergent consequences for affective responding.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Abstract · p. 1
Gross's process model proposes that emotion regulation strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process have a different consequence profile from strategies that act later.
“According to Gross's ~ 1998, Review of General Psychology , 2 , 271-299 ! process model of emotion regulation, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have a different profile of consequences than strategies that act later on.”
- Also stated in: § A Process Model of Emotion Regulation · p. 2 · plain
“The fundamental claim of this model is that emotion regulation strategies differ in when they have their primary impact on the emotion-generative process, as shown in Figure 1.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gross, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Also stated in: § A Process Model of Emotion Regulation · p. 2 · plain
- Interpretationown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6
The cognitive cost of suppression comes from engaging in suppression rather than from the amount of emotion suppressed.
“Importantly, suppression's effect on verbal memory was just as pronounced for the low-emotion as for the high-emotion slides, suggesting that it is the process of engaging in suppression that is cognitively costly, rather than the amount of emotion that is actually suppressed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data§ Social Consequences · p. 7
Reappraisal is not as cognitively taxing as suppression, at least as indexed by memory performance.
“Reappraisal also does not appear to be as cognitively taxing as suppression, at least as indexed by memory performance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 7
Individuals who tended to use reappraisal were more likely to be liked than individuals who tended to use suppression.
“individuals who tended to use reappraisal were more likely to be liked than individuals who tended to use suppression”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5
Without a stimulus that produces impulses to express, behavioral inhibition has relatively little impact on physiological responding.
“Absent a stimulus that produces impulses to express, behavioral inhibition has relatively little impact on physiological responding.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 7
Individuals who habitually suppress were less likely to share their negative or positive emotions with others than were individuals who reappraised.
“individuals who habitually suppress were less likely to share either their negative or their positive emotions with others than were individuals who reappraised”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Study design and conductreasoning§ Consequences of Emotion Regulation · p. 3
Because participants in the no-regulation condition were free to regulate, comparing a regulation condition with the control condition provides a conservative test of the hypothesized consequences.
“It is worth noting that because participants in the 'no regulation' condition are in fact free to regulate if they so choose, a comparison between one of the regulation conditions and the control condition provides a quite conservative test of the hypothesized consequences of these forms of emotion regulation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 6
The memory findings held when controlling for neuroticism and social desirability.
“these memory findings remained intact when controlling for neuroticism and social desirability, either of which might have led to spurious associations between emotion regulation and memory”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5
Self- and peer reports converged with previous experimental studies.
“As with suppression, self- and peer reports converged with the results of previous experimental studies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Emotion Regulation · p. 2
Emotion regulation can occur without conscious awareness.
“However, emotion regulation may also occur without conscious awareness, such as when one exaggerates one's joy upon receiving an unattractive present ~ Cole, 1986 ! , or when one quickly shifts attention away from something upsetting ~ Boden & Baumeister, 1997 ! .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning§ Concluding Comment · p. 9
Unlike suppression, reappraisal is not associated with increased sympathetic activation.
“Unlike suppression, reappraisal is not associated with increased sympathetic activation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Concluding Comment · p. 9
Reappraisal may not always be preferable to suppression.
“it is important to note that reappraisal may not always be preferable to suppression”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Concluding Comment · p. 9
Suppression is associated with increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system that appears out of keeping with metabolic demand.
“Suppression also is associated with increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system that appears to be out of keeping with metabolic demand.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Concluding Comment · p. 9
If emotional response tendencies are habitually and inflexibly overridden, an individual's ability to manage challenges successfully may be significantly compromised.
“If these response tendencies are habitually and inflexibly overridden, an individual's ability to manage these challenges successfully may be significantly compromised.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Emotion Regulation and Physical Health · p. 8
Among heart attack survivors, the subgroup scoring high on both distress and inhibition had a significantly higher death rate (27%) than other patients (7%).
“The subgroup scoring high on both distress and inhibition had a significantly higher death rate ~ 27% ! than other patients ~ 7% !”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Denollet et al., 1996 source
- May combine two claims. 28
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 6
May combine two claims.
Findingreasoning§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6In individual-difference data controlling for neuroticism and social desirability, suppression was negatively correlated with self-reported and objective memory, whereas reappraisal was not.
“Table 1. Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression (Controlling for Neuroticism and Social Desirability)”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Self-reported | - .31 * | - .23 * | .09 |”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Objective | - .33 * | - .27 * | .05 |”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5Suppression's relation to negative emotion experience is mixed, showing either no effects or positive effects.
“Findings regarding suppression and negative emotion experience were mixed, showing either no effects or positive effects, that is, the more individuals said they suppressed, the more negative emotion they said they felt.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingcitation§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5Reappraisal is associated with positive outcomes in life satisfaction, well-being, and depression.
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4Suppress participants showed greater increases in sympathetic activation than watch or reappraise participants, while watch and reappraise participants did not differ.
“Whereas suppress participants showed greater increases in sympathetic activation than watch or reappraise subjects, these latter two groups did not differ from one another.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingcitation§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5Suppression is associated with negative outcomes in life satisfaction, well-being, and depression.
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingcitation§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5A suppression effect for amusement experience occurred both in an amusement film and in a sadness film that evoked secondary amusement.
“Gross and Levenson ~ 1997 ! found a suppression effect for amusement experience both in a context that predominantly elicited amusement ~ an amusement film ! and in a context in which there were lower levels of amusement ~ a sadness film that evoked a bit of secondary amusement ! .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gross and Levenson, 1997 source
May combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5Suppression decreased nonemotional behavior, and suppress and watch subjects did not differ on physiological or experiential variables.
“As expected, suppression decreased nonemotional behavior, and no differences were found between suppress and watch subjects for any of the physiological or experiential variables.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone given§ Abstract · p. 1Emotions do not force particular responses; they only make those responses more likely.
“Importantly, however, emotions do not force us to respond in certain ways, they only make it more likely we will do so.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Emotion, Emotion Regulation, and Psychopathology · p. 8Individuals with schizophrenia have decreased emotion-expressive behavior compared with controls but comparable levels of emotion experience.
“Individuals with schizophrenia have decreased emotion-expressive behavior compared with controls, but comparable levels of emotion experience”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kring & Neale, 1996 source
May combine two claims.
Premisereasoning§ Social Consequences · p. 7Reappraisal decreases negative emotion experience and expression while either having no impact on or actually increasing positive emotion experience and expression.
“reappraisal seems to decrease negative emotion experience and expression while either having no impact or actually increasing positive emotion experience and expression”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ The Psychophysiology of Emotion Regulation · p. 7The cardiovascular changes accompanying suppression cohere theoretically and can be described as increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.
“These latter changes cohere theoretically, and can be described in terms of 'increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.'”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Cognitive Consequences · p. 6Monitoring during suppression requires continual cognitive resources, reducing resources available for later memory of events.
“Such monitoring requires a continual outlay of cognitive resources, reducing the resources available for processing events so that they can later be remembered.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone given§ Consequences of Emotion Regulation · p. 3The comparative design rests on the premise that antecedent-focused regulation concerns whether emotion response tendencies are triggered, while response-focused regulation concerns how they are modulated after being triggered.
“The logic of this comparative design hinges on the premise that whereas antecedent-focused forms of emotion regulation ~ such as reappraisal ! principally concern whether or not emotion response tendencies are triggered , response-focused strategies ~ such as suppression ! concern how emotion response tendencies are modulated once they have been triggered .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 7Suppression was associated with poorer social support and lesser use of instrumental and emotional social support coping.
“Suppression also was associated with poorer social support and lesser use of instrumental and emotional social support coping.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ The Psychophysiology of Emotion Regulation · p. 7Reappraisal led to increased activation of lateral prefrontal regions important for cognitive control and to decreases in activation of the amygdala and medial orbitofrontal cortex.
“reappraisal led to increased activation of lateral prefrontal regions important for cognitive control, and to decreases in activation of the amygdala and medial orbitofrontal cortex”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Emotion, Emotion Regulation, and Psychopathology · p. 8Patients with schizophrenia have well-characterized deficits in social functioning and lead those interacting with them to feel uncomfortable.
“Patients with schizophrenia also have well-characterized deficits in social functioning, and lead those interacting with them to feel uncomfortable”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Krause, Steimer, Sanger-Alt, & Wagner, 1989 source
May combine two claims.
Premisereasoning§ Social Consequences · p. 7Suppression decreases both negative and positive emotion-expressive behavior, thereby masking social signals otherwise available to interaction partners.
“suppression seems to be a blunt instrument-one that decreases both negative and positive emotion-expressive behavior, thereby masking important social signals that would otherwise be available to social interaction partners”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Social Consequences · p. 7The ongoing requirement to monitor one's own facial expressions and vocal signals could distract a suppressing individual and make them less responsive to a partner's emotional cues.
“the ongoing requirement of monitoring one's own facial expressions and vocal signals could distract the suppressing individual and make them less responsive to the emotional cues of their partner”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown data§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 6Suppression is cognitively costly whereas reappraisal is not.
“suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not”
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
“Suppression also consumes cognitive resources, impairing memory for information presented during the emotion regulation period. Reappraisal, by contrast, appears to have no such cognitive consequences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4Suppressing visible signs of embarrassment leads to enhanced blood pressure responses but does not affect emotion experience reports.
“Similarly, Harris ~ 2001 ! has found that suppressing visible signs of embarrassment leads to enhanced blood pressure responses, but does not affect emotion experience reports.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harris, 2001 source
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Affective Consequences · p. 3In Lazarus's representative study, participants who heard a soundtrack had lower skin conductance and more pleasant mood than participants with no soundtrack.
“Compared with the no soundtrack condition, participants who heard the soundtrack had lower skin conductance levels and more pleasant mood ratings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lazarus & Alfert, 1964 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ Social Consequences · p. 6Emotion-expressive behavior plays an important role in facilitating social interactions.
“Theorists since Darwin ~ 1872 0 1998 ! have maintained that emotionexpressive behavior plays an important role in facilitating social interactions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994 source
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Emotion, Emotion Regulation, and Psychopathology · p. 8Over half of nonsubstance-related Axis I clinical disorders and all Axis II personality disorders involve some form of emotion dysregulation.
“over half of the nonsubstance related Axis I clinical disorders and all of the Axis II personality disorders involve some form of emotion dysregulation”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gross & Levenson, 1997 source
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Emotion Regulation · p. 2Individuals increase, maintain, and decrease both negative and positive emotions.
“Individuals increase, maintain, and decrease negative and positive emotions ~ Parrott, 1993 ! .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Parrott, 1993
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ The Psychophysiology of Emotion Regulation · p. 7Suppression increases electrodermal responding and blood pressure, and decreases finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.
“Suppression also increases electrodermal responding and blood pressure, and decreases finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Gross, 1998a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Cognitive Consequences · p. 6Reappraisal leaves memory intact because it does not require costly self-regulation.
“This would make costly self-regulation unnecessary, leaving memory intact.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation§ Affective Consequences · p. 3Taken together, suppression findings suggest decreases in positive emotion experience, but the physiological effects of suppression are unclear.
“Taken together, these findings concerning suppression suggest decreases in positive emotion experience, but the physiological effects of suppression are not clear.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationreasoning§ Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6The cognitive costs of suppression are due to the verbal demands of self-instructions issued during suppression.
“suggesting that the cognitive costs of suppression are due to the verbal demands of self-instructions issued during the course of suppression ~ e.g., 'I need to keep my face still' ! .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Emotion Regulation and Other Forms of Self-Regulation · p. 9Diverse forms of self-regulation produce similar kinds of ego depletion, suggesting that a common resource may be consumed across them.
“Diverse forms of self-regulation result in similar kinds of 'ego depletion,' which suggests that a common resource may be consumed in diverse forms of regulation”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998 source
May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone given§ Concluding Comment · p. 9Suppression appears to have little impact on negative emotion experience while decreasing positive emotion experience.
“suppression appears to have little impact on negative emotion experience, while decreasing positive emotion experience”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
“Suppression is a form of emotion regulation that requires selfmonitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotions involve coordinated behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies.
“In either case, emotions call forth a coordinated set of behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies that together influence how we respond to perceived challenges and opportunities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The personal meaning assigned to a situation strongly influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies are generated.
“The personal meaning that is assigned to the situation is crucial because it powerfully influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies will be generated in that particular situation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
“These individual-difference findings converge with the results of our experimental studies, and suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Mindfulness training can improve emotional disorders and negative mood and reduce physiological responses such as skin conductance and amygdala activity.
“In the last two decades clinicians have shown that mindfulness training can improve emotional disorders [74] and negative mood [75] and reduce physiological responses such as skin conductance [76] and amygdala activity [67].”
From Mindful emotion regulation: Exploring the neurocognitive mechanisms behind mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as [74]
This citation is attached to the claim that training reduces skin conductance. In “Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data” (p. 4), the paper reports increased electrodermal activation with suppression and no observable electrodermal change with reappraisal. It does not study mindfulness training. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredModels of emotions distinguish between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation strategies based on differential processing of internal and external emotional cues.
“some models of emotions distinguish between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation strategies, based on the differential processing of internal and external emotional cues [65–68].”
From The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy (2010) · cites this paper as [66]
In “A Process Model of Emotion Regulation” (p. 2), Gross distinguishes antecedent-focused from response-focused strategies by when they act in the emotion-generative process. The passage does not base that distinction on differential processing of internal and external emotional cues. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredRecognition performance of emotional stimuli seems unaffected by emotional reappraisal, whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition.
“In addition, the recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems to be unaffected by emotional reappraisal (see [9,28] but see [29]), whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition [8,9].”
From Effects of differential strategies of emotion regulation (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
The Cognitive Consequences experimental-data section (p. 6) reports that reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory and that suppression impaired recognition of auditory and visual details in an emotional film. But the slide study found no reliable effect of suppression on nonverbal memory—the test that asked participants to recognize previously seen slides. The claim therefore overgeneralizes the recognition finding to emotional stimuli themselves. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredReplication of earlier results suggests the suppression manipulation was effective.
“We used similar instructions as Gross and colleagues to induce suppression (e.g., Gross & Levenson, 1997), and we replicated their earlier findings, suggesting that our experimental manipulation worked (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
Laboratory studies of cognitive change report psychological benefits from instructing participants to reappraise emotional stimuli or tasks to diminish personal identification and increase objectivity before encountering them.
“Laboratory based studies of cognitive change report psychological benefits from instructing participants to reappraise emotional stimuli or tasks in a manner designed to diminish personal identification and increase objectivity before the individuals encounter the stimuli or task”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
To achieve behavioral adaptation, CBTs share change principles targeting different points along an emotional trajectory: context engagement encompasses behavioral exposure and behavioral activation; attention change encompasses attention training and acceptance/tolerance; cognitive change encompasses decentering/defusion and cognitive reframing.
“to achieve a common goal of behavioral adaptation, CBTs share change principles that target responding at different points along an emotional trajectory (Gross, 2002), including context engagement which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of behavioral exposure and behavioral activation; attention change, which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of attention training”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The process model differentiates emotion regulation strategies according to the time they intervene in the unfolding emotional response: antecedent-focused strategies (used before emotion response tendencies become active) and response-focused strategies (used once response tendencies are generated).
“Within this framework, the process model differentiates emotion regulation strategies according to the time they intervene in the unfolding emotional response: we can distinguish between antecedent-focused strategies, which are used before the emotion response tendencies become active, and response-focused strategies, which are used once the response tendencies are generated [56,60,61].”
From Interoceptive Ability and Emotion Regulation in Mind–Body Interventions: An Integrative Review (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
Cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy.
“Cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy (Gross, 2002), that has been demonstrated to facilitate emotion regulation in healthy and psychiatric cohorts.”
From Rt-fMRI neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training modulates amygdala responsivity in posttraumatic stress disorder (2020) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
Emotion regulation therapy addresses sequencing by targeting refractory negative emotionality and negative self-referentiality in distress disorders by first addressing attention change techniques, then progressing to sustained attention, then metacognitive practices, and finally reappraisal.
“Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) is one approach to combining CBTs and MBIs that addresses sequencing by targeting the refractory negative emotionality and resulting negative self-referentiality that characterizes distress disorders [75] by first addressing attention change techniques”
From All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies (2019) · cites this paper as [81]
The generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect.
“Taken together, this suggests that the generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect (Gross, 2002).”
From Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training (2014) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Year of the Butler study differs from its reference entry
MinorThe text cites the Butler and colleagues social-interaction study as 2002, while the matching reference entry gives 2001.
“We asked unacquainted pairs of women to watch an upsetting film, and then discuss their reactions ~ Butler, Egloff, Wilhelm, Smith, & Gross, 2002 ! .”
“Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
The cognitive control of emotion
OCHSNER, K., & GROSS, J. (2005) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.010 · Cited by 4,495 · see citing works
“By contrast, cognitive regulation neutralizes negative experience without impairing memory and might decrease physiological arousal [ 15 ,16].”
BackgroundSelf-citationContributions of the Amygdala to Emotion Processing: From Animal Models to Human Behavior
Phelps, E. A., & LeDoux, J. E. (2005) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.09.025 · Cited by 3,203 · see citing works
“Successful reappraisal of emotional scenes alters physiological arousal responses, as well as ratings of emotional reactions (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundEmotional processing in anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex
Etkin, A., Egner, T., & Kalisch, R. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.11.004 · Cited by 3,059 · see citing works
Lerner, J. S., Li, Y., Valdesolo, P., & Kassam, K. S. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115043 · Cited by 2,913 · see citing works
Rethinking feelings: an fMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion
Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892902760807212 · Cited by 2,520 · see citing works
“Based on these cognitive neuroscience models, as well as process models of emotion and emotion regulation (Gross, 2002; Ochsner & Feldman Barrett, 2001), we hypothesized that comparable interactions between cognitive control and emotion-processing systems would underlie reappraisal.”
Self-citation(2007) · Cited by 3,233 · see citing works
Self-citationJohn, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2004) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.x · Cited by 2,381 · see citing works
Self-citationOchsner, K. N., Ray, R. D., Cooper, J. C., Robertson, E. R., Chopra, S., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Gross, J. J. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.030 · Cited by 2,113 · see citing works
“In comparison to other regulatory strategies, such as suppressing emotion expressive behavior, reappraisal appears to provide one of the most flexible and effective means of diminishing the negative impact of an aversive event (Gross, 2002; Gross and Levenson, 1993; Richards and Gross, 2000).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Neural Bases of Emotion Regulation: Reappraisal and Suppression of Negative Emotion
Goldin, P. R., McRae, K., Ramel, W., & Gross, J. J. (2008) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.031 · Cited by 1,886 · see citing works
“This suggests that successful expressive-suppression may be achieved in emotionally challenging situations but at a cost, namely, sustained activation that may be physiologically taxing and lead to disturbances in psychological and physical functioning (7;8;47).”
InfluentialSelf-citationEmotion and Cognition: Insights from Studies of the Human Amygdala
Phelps, E. A. (2006) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070234 · Cited by 1,798 · see citing works
“More recently, there has been a renewed interest in the influence of cognition on emotion inspired by investigations of emotion regulation (see Gross 2002 for a review).”
BackgroundRegulatory Flexibility: An Individual Differences Perspective on Coping and Emotion Regulation
Bonanno, G. A., & Burton, C. L. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691613504116 · Cited by 1,676 · see citing works
“…that emotional reappraisal is a generally efficacious and adaptive strategy, whereas expressive suppression is nearly uniformly maladaptive (e.g., Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997; John & Gross, 2004; Richards & Gross, 2000; Roberts, Levenson, & Gross, 2008; Srivastava, Tamir,…”
Optimizing inhibitory learning during exposure therapy
Craske, M. G., Kircanski, K., Zelikowsky, M., Mystkowski, J., Chowdhury, N., & Baker, A. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.10.003 · Cited by 1,607 · see citing works
“‘Toleration’ is central to the concept of emotion regulation, operationalized as the actions designed to influence which emotions are present, and how they are experienced or expressed (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundAn integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.115.2.336 · Cited by 1,576 · see citing works
“As already described, individuals might spend some of their attentional resources searching the environment for evidence to reconcile these competing hypotheses.”
BackgroundDS14: Standard Assessment of Negative Affectivity, Social Inhibition, and Type D Personality
Denollet, J. (2005) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000149256.81953.49 · Cited by 1,556 · see citing works
“High-SI individuals tend to inhibit the outward signs of inner feelings as a strategy for downregulating emotion (47).”
BackgroundSheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2011) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611418350 · Cited by 1,435 · see citing works
“Our finding that individuals choose to engage with lowintensity emotional stimuli via reappraisal is consistent with previous studies that have repeatedly shown that the reinterpretation of emotional events can be a highly effective form of emotion regulation (see Gross, 2002, for a review).”
MethodResultSelf-citationThe social consequences of expressive suppression
Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wlhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., Erickson, E. A., & Gross, J. J. (2003) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.48 · Cited by 1,400 · see citing works
“Similar to expressive suppression, survey data show that cognitive reappraisal is common in daily life (Gross & John, 2002), and experimental data show that it can be manipulated in a lab setting (Gross, 1998a; Richards & Gross, 2000).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationPhillips, M. L., Ladouceur, C. D., & Drevets, W. C. (2008) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2008.65 · Cited by 1,383 · see citing works
Mindful emotion regulation: an integrative review
Chambers, R., Gullone, E., & Allen, N. B. (2009) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.06.005 · Cited by 1,360 · see citing works
“The identified key strategies of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal emerge from a process model of ER (Gross, 1998a, 2002; Gross & John, 2003), which suggests that since emotions are temporal events.”
BackgroundEvent-Related Potentials, Emotion, and Emotion Regulation: An Integrative Review
Hajcak, G., MacNamara, A., & Olvet, D. M. (2010) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565640903526504 · Cited by 1,370 · see citing works
“…emotion regulation such as reappraisal, on the other hand, have been shown to decrease the intensity of self-reported negative affective experience (Gross, 2002; Hajcak & Nieuwenhuis, 2006; Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002), but do not appear to cause increases in sympathetic nervous system…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAn appraisal perspective of teacher burnout: Examining the emotional work of teachers
Chang, M.-L. (2009) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-009-9106-y · Cited by 1,349 · see citing works
Emotion regulation in depression: Relation to cognitive inhibition
Joormann, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2009) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930903407948 · Cited by 1,234 · see citing works
“In contrast to more cognitive strategies, expressive suppression is used late in the emotiongeneration sequence, likely after other strategies have failed and negative affect is experienced (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology
Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739 · Cited by 1,214 · see citing works
“Specifically, emotions are generated in a series of stages that include attending to a situation, giving it a valenced meaning, and producing a loosely coupled set of experiential, behavioral, and physiological responses (Gross 1998b, 2001, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationAmygdala–frontal connectivity during emotion regulation
Banks, S. J., Eddy, K. T., Angstadt, M., Nathan, P. J., & Phan, K. L. (2007) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsm029 · Cited by 1,187 · see citing works
Emotion Theory and Research: Highlights, Unanswered Questions, and Emerging Issues
Izard, C. E. (2008) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163539 · Cited by 1,100 · see citing works
Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: a dual-process framework.
Gyurak, A., Gross, J. J., & Etkin, A. (2011) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.544160 · Cited by 1,015 · see citing works
“…cognitive reappraisal, has been shown to result in lower physiological reactivity and less intense emotional experiences than suppression (Gross, 1998b, 2002) and has also been related to lower self-reported emotions in a lab stress and better functional life outcomes in an at-risk…”
Self-citationKashdan, T. B., Barrios, V., Forsyth, J. P., & Steger, M. F. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.10.003 · Cited by 994 · see citing works
Emotion regulation and culture: are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific?
Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L., & Gross, J. J. (2007) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.30 · Cited by 986 · see citing works
Self-citationMental Health Smartphone Apps: Review and Evidence-Based Recommendations for Future Developments
Bakker, D., Kazantzis, N., Rickwood, D., & Rickard, N. (2016) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/mental.4984 · Cited by 886 · see citing works
“Finally, cognitive change is the ability to change one’s perspective on an event, which then affects the emotional significance and meaning of that event [61].”
A meta-analysis of emotional reactivity in major depressive disorder
Bylsma, L. M., Morris, B. H., & Rottenberg, J. (2008) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.001 · Cited by 933 · see citing works
“…(HRV)/respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) (e.g., Appelhans & Luecken, 2006; Butler, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2006), blood pressure (e.g., Melamed, 1987), respiration (e.g., Ritz, Thons, Fahrenkrug, & Dahme, 2005), heart rate (e.g., Lang et al., 1993), and finger pulse amplitude (FPA; e.g., Gross, 2002).”
Emotion Regulation Abilities and the Quality of Social Interaction.
Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., Côté, S., & Beers, M. (2005) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.113 · Cited by 937 · see citing works
The effects of emotion on attention: A review of attentional processing of emotional information
Yiend, J. (2010) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930903205698 · Cited by 891 · see citing works
“Some researchers have investigated control using explicit instructions to vary attention to emotion (Gross, 2002; Ochsner & Gross, 2005), whereas others have used task manipulations or other implicit means of implementing control (Yiend et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialPain and emotion: a biopsychosocial review of recent research
Lumley, M. A., Cohen, J. L., Borszcz, G. S., Cano, A., Radcliffe, A. M., Porter, L. S., Schubiner, H., & Keefe, F. J. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20816 · Cited by 836 · see citing works
“…of emotional processes is broader than ''emotion regulation''—a label that typically refers only to the attenuation or reduction of emotional experience or expression (Gross, 2002), rather than the fuller range of processes, including enhancing awareness, experiencing, and expression.”
Zaki, J. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0037679 · Cited by 852 · see citing works
“As described by Gross (1998, 2002), emotion regulation encompasses a suite of such goal-driven strategies.”
BackgroundGarland, E. L., Farb, N. A., R. Goldin, P., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2015) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2015.1064294 · Cited by 810 · see citing works
“…such, studies indicate that positive reappraisal has a distinct physiological signature characterized by increased parasympathetic nervous system activation, unlike suppression which leads to a physiological state characterized by sympathetic dominance (Gross, 2002; but see Witvliet et al., 2011).”
BackgroundStress-induced obesity and the emotional nervous system
Dallman, M. F. (2010) · Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.tem.2009.10.004 · Cited by 814 · see citing works
Emmons, R. A., & Paloutzian, R. F. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145024 · Cited by 837 · see citing works
“The literature on emotion regulation in adulthood (e.g., Gross 2002) might be mined to see what it offers the psychology of religion; conversely, the field of emotion research might profit from a greater awareness of spiritual and religious influences on felt emotions (Hill 1999).”
BackgroundEmotion Regulation in Everyday Life.
Gross, J. J., Richards, J. M., & John, O. P. (2006) · Emotion regulation in couples and families: Pathways to dysfunction and health. · doi:10.1037/11468-001 · Cited by 829 · see citing works
“suppression (for a review of these studies, see Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003; John & Gross,”
BackgroundSelf-citationCostafreda, S. G., Brammer, M. J., David, A. S., & Fu, C. H. Y. (2008) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.10.012 · Cited by 772 · see citing works
“Studies used two strategies: reappraisal, in which themeaning of the emotional stimulus was manipulated to enhance the emotional experience; and suppression, in which subjects were asked to ‘distance themselves’ emotionally from the stimuli (Gross, 2002).”
MethodUnderstanding the co-occurrence of anxiety disorders and chronic pain: state-of-the-art
Asmundson, G. J. G., & Katz, J. (2009) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20600 · Cited by 756 · see citing works
On conceptualizing self-control as more than the effortful inhibition of impulses.
Fujita, K. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868311411165 · Cited by 734 · see citing works
“…of an object or event is fundamentally altered upon adoption of alternate construals (also referred to as reappraisals or cognitive transformations; Gross, 2002; Kross, Ayduk, & Mischel, 2005; Liberman, Trope, & Stephan, 2007; Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999; Mischel et al., 1989; Trope & Liberman,…”
BackgroundWu, G., Feder, A., Cohen, H., Kim, J. J., Calderon, S., Charney, D. S., & Mathé, A. A. (2013) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00010 · Cited by 780 · see citing works
“Consciously reassessing adverse or traumatic events to find the silver lining is associated with resilience (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundHayes, A. M., & Feldman, G. (2004) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph080 · Cited by 759 · see citing works
“There is now substantial evidence that avoidance and overengagement with emotions are associated with worse psychological and health outcomes (Gross, 2002; Salovey, Rothman, Detweiler, & Steward, 2002; Segerstrom, Stanton, Alden, & Shortridge, 2003).”
BackgroundA framework for studying emotions across species
Anderson, D. J., & Adolphs, R. (2014) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.003 · Cited by 691 · see citing works
“…of a role for prefrontal cortex in such regulation (Ochsner and Gross, 2005) (the issue is somewhat complicated by the fact that humans can regulate their emotions in at least two different ways, cognitive re-interpretation of a situation or active suppression of emotional reactions (Gross, 2002)).”
InfluentialChildhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities
Dvir, Y., Ford, J. D., Hill, M., & Frazier, J. A. (2014) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000014 · Cited by 698 · see citing works
“Both emotional states and goal-directed behavior can be modulated by decreasing negative, or increasing positive, expressive behavior, or by addressing physiological responses—through the use of, for example, cognitive-behavioral therapy or medications that decrease negative affective states such as anxiety and depres…”
BackgroundCampbell, J., & Ehlert, U. (2012) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.12.010 · Cited by 683 · see citing works
“Emotional regulation Emotional suppression seems to increase some measures of physiological activation (Gross, 2002).”
Emotion regulation choice: a conceptual framework and supporting evidence.
Sheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G., Radu, P. T., Blechert, J., & Gross, J. (2014) · Journal of experimental psychology. General · doi:10.1037/a0030831 · Cited by 628 · see citing works
Self-citationDifferential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training
Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Ricard, M., & Singer, T. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst060 · Cited by 676 · see citing works
Jennings, P. A., Frank, J. L., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000035 · Cited by 672 · see citing works
“The ability to reappraise a stressful situation plays an important role in successful selfregulation of emotion (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundAcceptance and mindfulness-based therapy: New wave or old hat?
Hofmann, S. G., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2008) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.09.003 · Cited by 665 · see citing works
“Specifically, we adopt the emotion-generative process model by Gross and colleagues (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & John, 2003; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
MethodEhring, T., & Quack, D. (2010) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2010.04.004 · Cited by 668 · see citing works
“There is correlational as well as experimental evidence supporting the classification of emotion suppression as a primarily dysfunctional emotion regulation strategy and reappraisal as a primarily functional one (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
BackgroundInteroception, contemplative practice, and health
Farb, N., Daubenmier, J., Price, C. J., Gard, T., Kerr, C., Dunn, B. D., Klein, A. C., Paulus, M. P., & Mehling, W. E. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00763 · Cited by 650 · see citing works
“For example, regulation could shape interoceptive signals to meet goals through reappraisal, suppression, or distraction, techniques often cited in modern scientific models of emotion regulation (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundJennings, P. A., Brown, J. L., Frank, J. L., Doyle, S., Oh, Y., Davis, R., Rasheed, D., DeWeese, A., DeMauro, A. A., Cham, H., et al. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000187 · Cited by 645 · see citing works
“Emotion expression suppression has been shown to increase stress and impair well-being (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundHofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Fang, A., & Asnaani, A. (2012) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.21888 · Cited by 630 · see citing works
“Emotion regulation has been defined as the process by which people influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express these emotions.[61] Based on this conceptualization, an emotion can be regulated at various stages in the process of emotion generation: (1) selection of the s…”
BackgroundBridgett, D. J., Burt, N. M., Edwards, E. S., & Deater-Deckard, K. D. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0038662 · Cited by 637 · see citing works
Neurocognitive bases of emotion regulation development in adolescence
Ahmed, S. P., Bittencourt-Hewitt, A., & Sebastian, C. L. (2015) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.07.006 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
Montaño, D., Reeske, A., Franke, F., & Hüffmeier, J. (2016) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2124 · Cited by 649 · see citing works
Emotion regulation and the anxiety disorders: An integrative review
Cisler, J. M., Olatunji, B. O., Feldner, M. T., & Forsyth, J. P. (2010) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9161-1 · Cited by 607 · see citing works
“Emotion regulation in the current paper refers to a heterogeneous set of actions that are designed to influence “which emotions we have, when we have them, and how we experience and express them” ( Gross 2002, p. 282 ).”
BackgroundEmotion‐regulation ability, burnout, and job satisfaction among British secondary‐school teachers
Brackett, M. A., Palomera, R., Mojsa‐Kaja, J., Reyes, M. R., & Salovey, P. (2010) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.20478 · Cited by 649 · see citing works
“The strategies that individuals employ to regulate emotions affect their relationships (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundNock, M. K., Wedig, M. M., Holmberg, E. B., & Hooley, J. M. (2007) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2007.05.005 · Cited by 622 · see citing works
“Several different theoretical models have highlighted the importance of both emotion regulation and emotion reactivity in the development and maintenance of psychopathology (Davidson, 2003; Gross, 2002; Porges, DoussardRoosevelt, & Maiti, 1994); however, specific studies of emotion reactivity have been lacking.”
BackgroundReappraisal modulates the electrocortical response to unpleasant pictures
Hajcak, G., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2006) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.6.4.291 · Cited by 613 · see citing works
“…process because it appears to be adaptive: Reappraisal has been shown to successfully reduce negative emotional responses to unpleasant stimuli (Gross, 2002); the tendency to use reappraisal has been related to measures of well-being (Gross & John, 2003; John & Gross, 2004); and this type of…”
InfluentialThe effect of heart rate variability biofeedback training on stress and anxiety: a meta-analysis
Goessl, V. C., Curtiss, J. E., & Hofmann, S. G. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717001003 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
“It has been suggested that stress and negative affect can be improved through adaptive emotion regulation (Gross, 2002; Hofmann, 2014), which is a form of selfregulation that is expressed through certain physiological measures, especially HRV. HRV is a measure of cardiac vagal tone that can be…”
BackgroundThe Role of Mindfulness in Positive Reappraisal
Garland, E., Gaylord, S., & Park, J. (2009) · EXPLORE · doi:10.1016/j.explore.2008.10.001 · Cited by 595 · see citing works
Ehring, T., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Schnülle, J., Fischer, S., & Gross, J. J. (2010) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0019010 · Cited by 587 · see citing works
Self-citationAcceptability and suppression of negative emotion in anxiety and mood disorders.
Campbell-Sills, L., Barlow, D. H., Brown, T. A., & Hofmann, S. G. (2006) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.6.4.587 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
“Keywords: emotion regulation, acceptance, suppression, anxiety disorders, mood disorders Emotion regulation refers to conscious and unconscious processes that influence the occurrence, intensity, duration, and expression of emotion (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialEmotion regulation and aggression
Roberton, T., Daffern, M., & Bucks, R. S. (2011) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2011.09.006 · Cited by 582 · see citing works
“using cognitive reappraisal to eliminate feelings of anxiety in a situation where the individual is at risk of harm (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAre expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal associated with stress-related symptoms?
Moore, S. A., Zoellner, L. A., & Mollenholt, N. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.05.001 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
Sleep and emotions: Bidirectional links and underlying mechanisms
Kahn, M., Sheppes, G., & Sadeh, A. (2013) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.05.010 · Cited by 550 · see citing works
“Similarly, research on emotion regulation has received growing attention and new sophisticated research methods have been developed (e.g., Gross, 1999, 2003; Sheppes et al., 2011).”
MethodWorking memory capacity and the self-regulation of emotional expression and experience.
Schmeichel, B. J., Volokhov, R. N., & Demaree, H. A. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013345 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
Feelings change: Accounting for individual differences in the temporal dynamics of affect.
Kuppens, P., Oravecz, Z., & Tuerlinckx, F. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020962 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
On the embodiment of emotion regulation: interoceptive awareness facilitates reappraisal
Füstös, J., Gramann, K., Herbert, B. M., & Pollatos, O. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss089 · Cited by 530 · see citing works
“It is associated with decreased expressive behavior, reduced emotion experience and increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system (Gross, 2002; Gross and Levenson, 1993).”
BackgroundMinding one’s emotions: Mindfulness training alters the neural expression of sadness.
Farb, N. A. S., Anderson, A. K., Mayberg, H., Bean, J., McKeon, D., & Segal, Z. V. (2010) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0017151 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
“Indeed, studies of emotion regulation have shown that initial reactions to negative affect can determine the intensity of subsequent distress, with important differences between the individual strategies evoked (Gross, 2002).”
Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, emotion, and emotion regulation during social interaction
Butler, E. A., Wilhelm, F. H., & Gross, J. J. (2006) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00467.x · Cited by 520 · see citing works
“Despite these similarities, the two strategies have also been shown to have differential effects on emotional experience and positive expression ( Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe neurobiology of depression and antidepressant action
Willner, P., Scheel-Krüger, J., & Belzung, C. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.12.007 · Cited by 519 · see citing works
Integrating emotion regulation and emotional intelligence traditions: a meta-analysis
Sarrionandia, A., Mikolajczak, M., & Gross, J. J. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00160 · Cited by 534 · see citing works
Self-citationEmotion dysregulation and non-suicidal self-injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Wolff, J. C., Thompson, E., Thomas, S. A., Nesi, J., Bettis, A. H., Ransford, B., Scopelliti, K., Frazier, E. A., & Liu, R. T. (2019) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.03.004 · Cited by 512 · see citing works
Feeding Your Feelings: Emotion Regulation Strategies and Emotional Eating
Evers, C., Stok, F. M., & de Ridder, D. T. D. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210371383 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
“In contrast, suppression is associ ated with increases in physiological responding and decreases in behavioral expression, but it fails to decrease emotion experience (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCutuli, D. (2014) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00175 · Cited by 484 · see citing works
“Two major emotion regulation strategies that have been particularly studied are cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression (Gross and John, 1998).”
BackgroundGoldin, P. R., Manber, T., Hakimi, S., Canli, T., & Gross, J. J. (2009) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.525 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
Self-citationPositive and Negative Emotion Regulation in Adolescence: Links to Anxiety and Depression
Young, K., Sandman, C., & Craske, M. (2019) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci9040076 · Cited by 485 · see citing works
“In line with the process model of emotion regulation [2], Cognitive Bias Modification aims to tap into antecedent-focused regulatory processes such as attentional deployment (Attention Bias Modification) and interpretation/reappraisal (Interpretation Bias Modification).”
MethodEmotional coregulation in close relationships
Butler, E. A., & Randall, A. K. (2013) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073912451630 · Cited by 476 · see citing works
“…suggests that the ability to modulate emotional responding in a way that supports one’s goals and maintains physiological equilibrium is critical for psychological, physical, and social well-being across the lifespan (Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, & Reiser, 2000; Gross, 2002; John & Gross, 2004).”
BackgroundStereotype threat and executive resource depletion: Examining the influence of emotion regulation.
Johns, M., Inzlicht, M., & Schmader, T. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0013834 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
“Unlike response-focused coping , antecedent-focused coping does not bear costs to psychological functioning because it does not require the same amount of online cognitive activity to monitor one's feelings and behavior (Gross, 2002).”
Backgroundvan Gelderen, M., Kautonen, T., & Fink, M. (2015) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2015.01.003 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Teacher emotions in the classroom and their implications for students
Frenzel, A. C., Daniels, L. M., & Burić, I. (2021) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2021.1985501 · Cited by 475 · see citing works
“From this perspective, the self-monitoring and selfcorrective actions involved in emotion regulation consume cognitive resources and lead to performance impairment (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundIS EMOTIONAL LABOR MORE DIFFICULT FOR SOME THAN FOR OTHERS? A MULTILEVEL, EXPERIENCE‐SAMPLING STUDY
Judge, T. A., Woolf, E. F., & Hurst, C. (2009) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.01129.x · Cited by 461 · see citing works
“In light of evidence that emotion regulation affects emotional experience (see Gross, 2002), it seems likely that mood is not only an outcome of emotional labor but also an important mechanism explaining its link to well-being.”
BackgroundHolzman, J. B., & Bridgett, D. J. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.032 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Hofmann, S. G., Heering, S., Sawyer, A. T., & Asnaani, A. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.02.010 · Cited by 464 · see citing works
Foti, D., & Hajcak, G. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20066 · Cited by 458 · see citing works
“These emotion regulation strategies, as contrasted with suppression, appear to be effective in decreasing the experience of negative emotions (Hajcak & Nieuwenhuis, 2006; Gross, 2002; Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002) and have no adverse effects on memory (Richards & Gross, 2000).”
BackgroundPelowski, M. J., Markey, P. S., Forster, M., Gerger, G., & Leder, H. (2017) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2017.02.003 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
Haga, S. M., Kraft, P., & Corby, E.-K. (2007) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-007-9080-3 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, their means to the same end vary considerably ( Gross 2002 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialMind over matter: reappraising arousal improves cardiovascular and cognitive responses to stress
Jamieson, J. P., Nock, M. K., & Mendes, W. B. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0025719 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
“Thus, consistent with research on emotion regulation (Gross, 2002) and CBT (Hofmann & Smits, 2008), interpretations of bodily signals impact how the body and mind respond to acute stress.”
BackgroundResultAttention training in individuals with generalized social phobia: A randomized controlled trial.
Amir, N., Beard, C., Taylor, C. T., Klumpp, H., Elias, J. A., Burns, M. N., & Chen, X. (2009) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016685 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
“…be expected to allow for increased processing of other types of social information, or may alter the perception of threat early in the appraisal process (e.g., Gross, 2002) before the cascade of maladaptive cognitive, behavioral, and emotional events associated with anxiety is fully activated.”
BackgroundMorawetz, C., Bode, S., Derntl, B., & Heekeren, H. R. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.11.014 · Cited by 458 · see citing works
“, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, distraction, detachment) that are widely used to decrease or increase emotions (Gross, 2002; Koole, 2009), we observed a core network involved in emotion regulation independent of regulation strategies, that consists of the anterior part of the left IFG/VLPFC, bilateral…”
BackgroundInfluentialGreen, M. F. (2005) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbi049 · Cited by 453 · see citing works
Acute Stress Modulates Risk Taking in Financial Decision Making
Porcelli, A. J., & Delgado, M. R. (2009) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02288.x · Cited by 449 · see citing works
“Additionally, research may probe the use of cognitive techniques, such as emotion regulation strategies (Gross, 2002), as a way to overcome increased biases in risk taking resulting from stress.”
BackgroundNeuroticism as a common dimension in the internalizing disorders
Griffith, J. W., Zinbarg, R. E., Craske, M. G., Mineka, S., Rose, R. D., Waters, A. M., & Sutton, J. M. (2010) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291709991449 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
“Emotion regulation refers to biological and psychological processes that influence how emotions are expressed or experienced (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundHerbert, B. M., Herbert, C., & Pollatos, O. (2011) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00717.x · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Regulating Positive and Negative Emotions in Daily Life
Nezlek, J. B., & Kuppens, P. (2008) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00496.x · Cited by 441 · see citing works
Emotional regulation goals and strategies of teachers
Sutton, R. E. (2004) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-004-4229-y · Cited by 439 · see citing works
“In contrast, Gross (2002) argued that emotional regulation is neutral as the same strategies that permit surgeons to be effective during operations may also allow torturers to neutralize their emphatic distress (p. 282).”
BackgroundBrockman, R., Ciarrochi, J., Parker, P., & Kashdan, T. (2017) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2016.1218926 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
“found that emotion suppression is useful when people want to alter their emotion-expressive behaviour, but it fails to provide subjective relief to the experience of negative emotions, and comes with a substantial cost to cognition, physiology and relationship functioning (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialEmotion Regulation Questionnaire – Eine deutschsprachige Fassung des ERQ von Gross und John
Abler, B., & Kessler, H. (2009) · Diagnostica · doi:10.1026/0012-1924.55.3.144 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
- Authors
- Gross, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gross, James J.
- ORCID
- Gross, James J.
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 281-291
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2128126978
- Cited by
- 4,890
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 341 · 2025: 492 · 2024: 315 · 2023: 314 · 2022: 321 · 2021: 315 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 267 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 254 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 232 · 2014: 233 · 2013: 228 · 2012: 179
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58147)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, process model of emotion regulation, emotional experience, emotional expression, memory impairment, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Psychophysiology, Social Behavior
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