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Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences.
Open accessAbstract
One of life's great challenges is successfully regulating emotions. Do some emotion regulation strategies have more to recommend them than others? According to Gross's (1998, Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299) process model of emotion regulation, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have a different profile of consequences than strategies that act later on. This review focuses on two commonly used strategies for down-regulating emotion. The first, reappraisal, comes early in the emotion-generative process. It consists of changing the way a situation is construed so as to decrease its emotional impact. The second, suppression, comes later in the emotion-generative process. It consists of inhibiting the outward signs of inner feelings. Experimental and individual-difference studies find reappraisal is often more effective than suppression. Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory. By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory. Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners. This review concludes with a consideration of five important directions for future research on emotion regulation processes.
Checked 2026-10-05 · 1 reference not checked yet
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27 Own result · 22 Own interpretation · 13 No full text of the sources · 9 Sources not found · 6 No basis given · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5 · plain
“It is noteworthy that whereas suppressing negative emotionexpressive behavior has no discernible impact on negative emotion experience ~ e.g., disgust, sadness, embarrassment ! , suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior does have an impact on positive emotion experience ~ e.g., amusement ! .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relations between suppression and negative emotion expression also followed expectations, with suppression being associated with lesser negative emotion expressive behavior.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found that individuals who scored higher on either of the two suppression scales reported having worse memory that those who scored lower on these suppression scales”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
“As predicted, results indicated that suppression led to reliable decrements ~ compared to the control condition ! in both objective memory and memory confidence ratings.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“As predicted, suppression participants performed less well on the verbal memory test than control participants.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They also performed worse on an objective memory test in which they were asked to recall events they had listed in a daily diary 1 week earlier.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike suppression, however, reappraisal had no observable consequences in terms of sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular or electrodermal systems.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, suppression's effect on verbal memory was just as pronounced for the low-emotion as for the high-emotion slides, suggesting that it is the process of engaging in suppression that is cognitively costly, rather than the amount of emotion that is actually suppressed.”
plainn = 76- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- Probably not a substantial claim. 6
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 1. Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression (Controlling for Neuroticism and Social Desirability)”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Self-reported | - .31 * | - .23 * | .09 |”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Objective | - .33 * | - .27 * | .05 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Findings regarding suppression and negative emotion experience were mixed, showing either no effects or positive effects, that is, the more individuals said they suppressed, the more negative emotion they said they felt.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas suppress participants showed greater increases in sympathetic activation than watch or reappraise subjects, these latter two groups did not differ from one another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gross and Levenson ~ 1997 ! found a suppression effect for amusement experience both in a context that predominantly elicited amusement ~ an amusement film ! and in a context in which there were lower levels of amusement ~ a sadness film that evoked a bit of secondary amusement ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross and Levenson, 1997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, suppression decreased nonemotional behavior, and no differences were found between suppress and watch subjects for any of the physiological or experiential variables.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, however, emotions do not force us to respond in certain ways, they only make it more likely we will do so.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals with schizophrenia have decreased emotion-expressive behavior compared with controls, but comparable levels of emotion experience”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kring & Neale, 1996 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reappraisal seems to decrease negative emotion experience and expression while either having no impact or actually increasing positive emotion experience and expression”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These latter changes cohere theoretically, and can be described in terms of 'increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.'”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such monitoring requires a continual outlay of cognitive resources, reducing the resources available for processing events so that they can later be remembered.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The logic of this comparative design hinges on the premise that whereas antecedent-focused forms of emotion regulation ~ such as reappraisal ! principally concern whether or not emotion response tendencies are triggered , response-focused strategies ~ such as suppression ! concern how emotion response tendencies are modulated once they have been triggered .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Suppression also was associated with poorer social support and lesser use of instrumental and emotional social support coping.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“reappraisal led to increased activation of lateral prefrontal regions important for cognitive control, and to decreases in activation of the amygdala and medial orbitofrontal cortex”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Patients with schizophrenia also have well-characterized deficits in social functioning, and lead those interacting with them to feel uncomfortable”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Krause, Steimer, Sanger-Alt, & Wagner, 1989 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression seems to be a blunt instrument-one that decreases both negative and positive emotion-expressive behavior, thereby masking important social signals that would otherwise be available to social interaction partners”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the ongoing requirement of monitoring one's own facial expressions and vocal signals could distract the suppressing individual and make them less responsive to the emotional cues of their partner”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not”
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
“Suppression also consumes cognitive resources, impairing memory for information presented during the emotion regulation period. Reappraisal, by contrast, appears to have no such cognitive consequences.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
In the paper
“Similarly, Harris ~ 2001 ! has found that suppressing visible signs of embarrassment leads to enhanced blood pressure responses, but does not affect emotion experience reports.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harris, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Compared with the no soundtrack condition, participants who heard the soundtrack had lower skin conductance levels and more pleasant mood ratings.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lazarus & Alfert, 1964 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theorists since Darwin ~ 1872 0 1998 ! have maintained that emotionexpressive behavior plays an important role in facilitating social interactions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“over half of the nonsubstance related Axis I clinical disorders and all of the Axis II personality disorders involve some form of emotion dysregulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross & Levenson, 1997 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals increase, maintain, and decrease negative and positive emotions ~ Parrott, 1993 ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Parrott, 1993
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Suppression also increases electrodermal responding and blood pressure, and decreases finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross, 1998a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would make costly self-regulation unnecessary, leaving memory intact.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these findings concerning suppression suggest decreases in positive emotion experience, but the physiological effects of suppression are not clear.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the cognitive costs of suppression are due to the verbal demands of self-instructions issued during the course of suppression ~ e.g., 'I need to keep my face still' ! .”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
In the paper
“Diverse forms of self-regulation result in similar kinds of 'ego depletion,' which suggests that a common resource may be consumed in diverse forms of regulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression appears to have little impact on negative emotion experience, while decreasing positive emotion experience”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
“Suppression is a form of emotion regulation that requires selfmonitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotions involve coordinated behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies.
“In either case, emotions call forth a coordinated set of behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies that together influence how we respond to perceived challenges and opportunities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The personal meaning assigned to a situation strongly influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies are generated.
“The personal meaning that is assigned to the situation is crucial because it powerfully influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies will be generated in that particular situation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
“These individual-difference findings converge with the results of our experimental studies, and suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“In the last two decades clinicians have shown that mindfulness training can improve emotional disorders [74] and negative mood [75] and reduce physiological responses such as skin conductance [76] and amygdala activity [67].”
From Mindful emotion regulation: Exploring the neurocognitive mechanisms behind mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as [74]
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“some models of emotions distinguish between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation strategies, based on the differential processing of internal and external emotional cues [65–68].”
From The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy (2010) · cites this paper as [66]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition, the recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems to be unaffected by emotional reappraisal (see [9,28] but see [29]), whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition [8,9].”
From Effects of differential strategies of emotion regulation (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We used similar instructions as Gross and colleagues to induce suppression (e.g., Gross & Levenson, 1997), and we replicated their earlier findings, suggesting that our experimental manipulation worked (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Laboratory based studies of cognitive change report psychological benefits from instructing participants to reappraise emotional stimuli or tasks in a manner designed to diminish personal identification and increase objectivity before the individuals encounter the stimuli or task”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“to achieve a common goal of behavioral adaptation, CBTs share change principles that target responding at different points along an emotional trajectory (Gross, 2002), including context engagement which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of behavioral exposure and behavioral activation; attention change, which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of attention training”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Within this framework, the process model differentiates emotion regulation strategies according to the time they intervene in the unfolding emotional response: we can distinguish between antecedent-focused strategies, which are used before the emotion response tendencies become active, and response-focused strategies, which are used once the response tendencies are generated [56,60,61].”
From Interoceptive Ability and Emotion Regulation in Mind–Body Interventions: An Integrative Review (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy (Gross, 2002), that has been demonstrated to facilitate emotion regulation in healthy and psychiatric cohorts.”
From Rt-fMRI neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training modulates amygdala responsivity in posttraumatic stress disorder (2020) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
In the citing paper
“Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) is one approach to combining CBTs and MBIs that addresses sequencing by targeting the refractory negative emotionality and resulting negative self-referentiality that characterizes distress disorders [75] by first addressing attention change techniques”
From All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies (2019) · cites this paper as [81]
In the citing paper
“Taken together, this suggests that the generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect (Gross, 2002).”
From Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training (2014) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
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Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
“We asked unacquainted pairs of women to watch an upsetting film, and then discuss their reactions ~ Butler, Egloff, Wilhelm, Smith, & Gross, 2002 ! .”
§ REFERENCES · p. 10
“Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 4,701–4,800 of 4,870
From Stress to Snacking: Psychological Pathways and Consumer Behavior in Today’s Food Environment
Soni, S., Kumari, S., Kumar, M., & Shrivastava, S. (2026) · Sustainable development and biodiversity · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-7777-4_24
Mananggit, M. A. C., Intarakamhang, U., Mohan, K. P., Ledesma, A., COLLADO, J., Laureta, K. P., Balmilero-Pelagio, J. K., Pararuan, R. A. V., Reyes-Colar, F. F., Bustos, I. G., et al. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04695-z · Cited by 3
“Such observations were consistent with research indicating that emotional expression was a mediator of adaptive coping and mental well-being [56, 57].”
Does festival memory stay the same? Investigating memory distortion through reappraisal
Park, J. E., Shin, H. W., & Fan, A. (2026) · Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.jhtm.2026.101454
Simulating Emotion Regulation Strategies with Generative Agent Based Modeling
Manzoor, A. R., Akhmadjanova, G. R., Sabirjonova, G., et al. (2025) · International Conference on Future Networks and Distributed Systems (ICFNDS) · doi:10.1145/3789692.3789837
“The emotion regulation model comprises the mechanisms through which people impact, what emotions they will have, when these will happen and how they are expressed [3].”
Mor, S., Akinola, M., Crum, A. J., Morris, M. W., & Fridman, I. (2016) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Wang, D., Wang, X., Jaapar, S. Z. S., & Razak, A. A. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04527-0
Gillespie, S. M., & Garofalo, C. (2026) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394461721.ch2
Gezer, H. (2026) · e-Kafkas Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.30900/kafkasegt.1699848
Zhao, S., Hu, R., & Zhang, L. (2026) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.21238
“Emotional inhibition is defined as the conscious suppression of one’s emotional expression and the concealment of emotions following emotional arousal ( Gross, 2002 ).”
InfluentialVosloo, L. (2026) · Hospitals · doi:10.3390/hospitals3020012
“The third and final psychological framework combines the constructs of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and emotion regulation, drawing from the work of Arora et al. [13] and Gross [18].”
Çiftçi, K., Tunç, Y., & Gülbetekin, E. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440261449492
“…characteristics such as students’ personality traits (Opoku et al., 2023), self-perception (Harter, 1999; Marsh & Martin, 2011), motivation, self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1997; Deci & Ryan, 1985), learning styles (Asuquo, 2024), and emotional regulation skills (Gross, 2002; Pekrun, 2006).”
Wright, R. A., Mlynski, C., & King, R. (2026) · Advances in motivation science · doi:10.1016/bs.adms.2026.04.001
The influence of sequential feedback on young math learners' emotional responses
Horvers, A., Malmberg, L., Molenaar, I., Bosse, T., & Lazonder, A. W. (2026) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2026.102947
da Silva, A. P., Domenico, E. B. L. D., Santos, R. P. D. S., Silva, C. T. D. S., & Rosa, D. D. O. S. (2026) · RECIMA21 - Revista Científica Multidisciplinar · doi:10.47820/recima21.v7i5.7948
Zhang, W., Wang, Y., Wang, G., & Tang, Z. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1849695
“The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross, 2002) consists of 10 items and includes two dimensions: cognitive reappraisal (6 items) and expressive suppression (4 items).”
Tourism as narrative therapy: Unpacking the emotional and identity mechanisms of affective recovery
Hao, W., & Lee, T. J. (2026) · Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.jhtm.2026.101458 · Cited by 1
Lan, Z., Lv, M., Wang, Y., & Liu, Z. H. (2026) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2026.102027
Donat, M., Reinhaus, D., Zandi, H., & Wolgast, A. (2026) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-026-10222-0 · Cited by 1
“Emotion regulation refers to cognitive or behavioral processes (cognitive or behavioral) allowing people to influence the duration, magnitude, latency, rise time, offset, experience, and expression of emotional responses (Gross, 2002).”
Zeng, Y., Peng, J., Chen, Z., Duan, P., & Wei, Z. (2026) · Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research · doi:10.1186/s43031-026-00166-y
Xu, H., Qu, J., & Zhao, J. (2026) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci15050330
Wichtige Bausteine einer starken Selbstkompetenz
Lexer, G., & Ahrendt, B. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-73427-8_2
Gu, Y., Zong, J., Wu, Y., Wang, Q., Pan, L., & Gao, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1842578
“…that persistent states of anxiety and fear are correlated with alterations in memory-TABLE Forest plot showing odds ratios (OR) of cognitive impairment for trajectories of PNA and SLA. related brain regions such as the hippocampus via chronic activation of the stress response system (30 – 32).”
Huțul, T., Huțul, A., Antoniac, L.-D., Karner‐Huțuleac, A., Holman, A. C., Ilie, E., & Ciobanu, V. (2026) · Sexual Health & Compulsivity · doi:10.1080/26929953.2026.2667782
Melville, G., Halstead, P. J., & McGhee, P. (2026) · Journal of Psychology and Theology · doi:10.1177/00916471261446930 · Cited by 1
Wang, L., & Li, X. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791913
“This study is based on emotion regulation theory (Gross, 2002) and the risk–protection framework (Fergus and Zimmerman, 2005).”
InfluentialWang, X., Le, J., Tang, Y., Huang, Q., Qi, J., Chen, X., Zhao, L., Zhao, L., Liao, Z., & Shen, H. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778758
“…regulation have been associated with heightened cortisol responses, prefrontal regulatory dysfunction, and increased repetitive negative thinking (Gross, 2002; Langer et al., 2022; Mansueto et al., 2022), all of which may increase vulnerability to AS severity and substance use (Mansueto et al.,…”
Hatun, O., & Seven, B. (2026) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075261454135
Zhang, Y., & Liu, Y. (2026) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence14050085
Review of Emotion Regulation Psychosocial Interventions for Children and Adolescents with ADHD
Breaux, R., Majusiak, C., Cash, A. R., Pham, S. N., & Le, M. (2026) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci16060560 · Cited by 1
“Deficits in emotion regulation (ER; i.e., the ability to increase, decrease, or maintain the intensity, duration, and trajectory of emotions [4,5]) have been well-supported as a potential mechanism contributing to emotional difficulties for youths with ADHD [6].”
ERMoV: Modeling Affective Mental States via Emotion Regulation for Dialogue Emotion Recognition
Sun, X., Liu, X., & Jiang, Y. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2026.3696654
“Inspired by Gross’s response modulation strategy from emotion regulation theory [11], the ERMoV model incorporates an Emotion Damping Regulation GNN (EmoGNN), which combines emotion damping characteristics with GNN propagation mechanisms.”
Kalaora, M., Bolger, N. P., Ochsner, K. N., & He, Z. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-9510392/v1
“It is built on canonical definitions of self-reappraisal, where an individual reframes the meaning of an emotional experience in order to change its affective potency for themselves (Gross 1998, 2002; Ochsner et al. 2012).”
Kocarslan, B., Genç, H. A., Yorgancıgil, E., Yükselen, G., Albayrak, Z. S., Aydın, G., Erdoğan, S. B., Akın, A., & Demirtaş-Tatlıdede, A. (2026) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci16060564
“Emotion regulation has been defined as the processes by which individuals control their emotional responses in order to guide their behavior in line with situational demands and both short-term and long-term goals in every context [4–6].”
Causes and Symptoms in Individuals and Society
Hoffmann, O. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-73134-5_3
Effects of four emotion regulation strategies in negative and neutral contextsPreprint
Oblak, L., Kocjan, G. Z., Matkovič, A., Ozimič, A. S., & Repovš, G. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-9081386/v1
Yu, L., & Yan, M. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09529-0
“Emotion regulation is about how individuals actively shape their emotional experiences and expressions through various processes (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
InfluentialEmotion regulation and mental health in college students during coronavirus pandemic lockdowns
Wu, H.-N., Luo, F., Wang, J.-J., Wu, W.-Y., Fang, K.-J., Xing, H.-Y., & Yan, J. (2026) · World Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5498/wjp.115802
Ferguson, E. F., Nuske, H. J., Hardan, A. Y., & Gross, J. J. (2026) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.70177
Self-citationKang, D., Jiang, G., & Xu, X. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828704
The impact of loneliness on the self-reference effect in remembering and directed forgetting
Wang, W., Tang, X., Wang, Y., Zhou, J., Hong, C., Yan, W., Chen, N., & Liu, W. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809521
“The absence of a valence bias in the low-loneliness group may reflect more effective emotion regulation and a balanced attentional focus toward positive and negative information (Gross, 2002).”
Renna, M., Broich, K., Johal, S. K., Wilbourne, F. N., Kaeppler, A. K., & Shrout, M. (2026) · Journal of psychosocial oncology · doi:10.1080/07347332.2026.2661039
Barfety-Servignat, V. (2026) · Douleurs Évaluation - Diagnostic - Traitement · doi:10.1016/j.douler.2026.01.009
Li, P., Wang, Y., Deng, Z., Wu, J., Chen, Z., Fu, R., Yao, D., Yu, S., Yan, G., & Yan, H. (2026) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-026-08283-8 · Cited by 1
“Both groups showed within-group reductions (iTBS: 73.81 [7.316] to 57.19 [11.714]; sham: 74.50 [9.530] to 60.81 [10.994]; both p < .001).”
InfluentialKhan, I., & Saeed, W. (2025) · journal of social sciences review · doi:10.62843/jssr.v6i1.711
10-15 YAŞ ARASI ÇOCUKLARDA HASTALIK KAYGISININ PSİKOLOJİK BELİRLEYİCİLERİNİN İNCELENMESİ
AKTAN, Z. D. (2026) · Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi · doi:10.16953/deusosbil.1815190
A dynamic perspective on clinical treatment evaluation using dynamic structural equation modeling
He, S., & Lee, W. (2026) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-026-02921-1
“Accordingly, amplitude can be regarded as a clinically meaningful form of within-individual variability, and reductions in amplitude, such as attenuated emotional or physiological reactivity, may indicate improved treatment response [9].”
Eweida, R. S., Gedeon, E., Fekih‐Romdhane, F., Hamed, A. E. M., Sorour, D. M., & Hallit, S. R. (2026) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.70086
“When regulation is flexible and effective, emotions can be informative and manageable; when it is not, emotions can become overwhelming, prolonged, or disruptive to daily functioning (Gross 2002).”
Chen, S. H., Xie, Q., Pan, J., Guo, J., & Yin, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1831906
“In the absence of effective emotion regulation mechanisms, the cumulative effect may exacerbate depressive tendencies (Gross, 2002).”
Cheng, J., Cheng, Q., Wu, Y., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2026.1837342
“This outcome can be understood through Gross’s process model of emotion regulation, which identifies cognitive reappraisal as an antecedent-focused strategy that operates by reinterpreting an emotion-eliciting situation before the full emotional response unfolds (26).”
Emotional demands and burnout: Differential moderating effect of job resources and age
Popucza, T. Z. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0351940 · Cited by 2
“Conceptually, deep acting also overlaps with cognitive reappraisal, an antecedent-focused emotion regulation strategy that facilitates positive emotional experiences and psychological well-being [11,26].”
Ackermans, M. A., Heininga, V. E., de Jong, P. J., & Jonker, N. C. (2026) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.70175
“…over adaptive ER strategies (reappraisal, engagement, relaxation, ; Gross & John, 2003; Sheppes & Meiran, 2007; Zijlstra et al., 2012), and a total mal-adaptive ER score over maladaptive ER strategies (rumination and suppression; Gross, 2002; Nolen-Hoeksema & Harrell, 2002; Zijlstra et al., 2012).”
Vásquez-Romero, A., & Pérez-Lara, C. M. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1866103
“…transversal processes such as emotional awareness refer to the ability to identify, understand, and appropriately select regulatory strategies according to contextual demands; impairment in this domain is associated with greater severity and persistence of emotional dysregulation (Gross, 2002).”
Lin, P., Wang, X., Lin, Y., Lin, Y., Chen, L., & Wu, B. (2026) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-026-04903-6 · Cited by 1
“Emotion regulation (ER) [15–17] is defined as “the processes by which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express these emotions”.”
Cognitive reappraisal is associated with reduced threat expectancy during social fear extinction
Miño, V., Bacigalupo, F., Quezada-Scholz, V. E., Herrera, L., & Martín, C. S. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107326
Emotions, the amygdala, and the right hemisphere
Gainotti, G. (2026) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2026.150448 · Cited by 2
Zhang, Y., Chen, W., Wang, Q., Wu, Z., & Liu, Y. (2026) · Beijing international review of education · doi:10.1177/25902547261459190
Öğretmenlerde Bilişsel Duygu Düzenleme Stratejileri ile Manevi İyi Oluş Arasındaki İlişki
Kılıç, N., & Hıdır, A. P. A. K. (2026) · Türk Manevi Danışmanlık ve Rehberlik Dergisi · doi:10.56432/tmdrd.1865716
Are We Avoiding a Major Public Health Concern?
Davis, J. (2026) · Boston Congress of Public Health Review (BCPHR Formerly HPHR) · doi:10.54111/001c.163411
Liu, J., & Xiang, Y. (2026) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.2026.2687377
Serafim, C. J. (2026) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1080/17482631.2026.2696637
Li, B., & Zhu, Y. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-29583-5_20
Wang, D., Ye, R., Ren, K., & Gao, C. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1888424
“When rumination is reduced, adolescents are better able to engage in more adaptive emotion-regulation strategies, such as reappraisal, which involves reinter-preting the meaning of distressing situations in a more positive light (64, 65).”
Peng, D., Yuxin, Y., Lin, X., Wang, Z., & Li, X. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107387 · Cited by 2
Dung, N. Q., Chi, P. L., Dung, N. T., Anh, T. T. Q., & Anh, T. P. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09746-7
“Gross’s Emotion Regulation Theory (1998, 2002) posits that consumers continuously manage emotions to maintain psychological equilibrium.”
Maier, C., Laumer, S., & Weitzel, T. (2026) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2026.104401
Zhao, X., Byun, S., & Jeon, L. (2026) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2026.2699812
Duygu Düzenleme Bağlamında Dinî Başa Çıkmanın Öfke Üzerindeki Yordayıcı Rolü
DAĞCI, A. (2026) · Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.47948/efad.1925752
Gao, Z., Xiong, H., Xiao, Y., Barnhart, W. R., & He, J. (2026) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2026.102111
Fu, R., Iglesias-Fuster, J., Zweerings, J., Keller, M., Kühne, S., Valdés-Sosa, M. J., Cong, F., & Mathiak, K. (2026) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2026.122119
Nadifi, M., Zenjari, A., & Cherkaoui, A. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440261467455
Yaylacı, H. K., & Olgan, R. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107340
Duncan‐Plummer, T., Hasking, P. A., Tonta, K. E., & Boyes, M. E. (2026) · Advances in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/18387357.2026.2689957
Social–Emotional Development of Young Children Who Stutter: An Overview of Empirical Studies
Jokar, A. H. R., Tehran, H. F., Brophy‐Herb, H. E., & Yaruss, J. S. (2026) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2026_jslhr-25-00886
Lin, H.-C. K., Chang, H.-S., Tseng, Y.-R., Wang, T.-H., & Li, C. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877695
“…(Gross and John, 2003), although emotion regulation strategies may be activated or practiced in speci(cid:277)c situations, changes in habitual strategy use generally require longer periods of time, repeated practice, and more stable contextual support (Gross, 2002; Gross and ompson, 2007).”
The Psychology of Industrial Transformation
Roos, G., & Huth, M. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-2600-3194-0.ch009
Ajay, R., & Muralidharan, S. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-8006-3.ch004
The influence of college students’ “Wan Geng” motivation on emotion regulation self-efficacy
He, Z., Zhao, Y., Shan, Y., Wan, F., & Liu, T. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802652
“Cognitive reappraisal is an antecedent-focused emotion regulation strategy that modifies the interpretation of an emotional event with little cognitive cost (Gross, 2002).”
Loneliness in emerging adulthood: A cluster analysis of psychological risk and protective factors
Sanchis-Sanchis, A., Ordóñez, Y. R., Aragonés-Barberá, I., & Sevilla, M. D. G. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107482 · Cited by 1
Wang, Y., Han, J., Yukun, M. E. I., Lin, S., Gong, G., Zheng, F., He, S., & Sun, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1740018
“Within Gross’s process model of emotion regulation, acceptance facilitates cognitive change that disrupts automatic negative emotional responses, ultimately bolstering emotional resilience (Gross, 2002).”
Influential沙文沛, Zhang, J., 安文海, Ibrahim, K. F. K., & Zhang, Z. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794435
“Cognitive reappraisal—defined as the reinterpretation of emotionally evocative situations—is widely regarded as an adaptive regulation strategy and has been associated with better emotional adjustment and higher well-being (Gross, 2002; Gross and John, 2003; Balzarotti et al., 2016).”
Dong, M., Kang, L., Zhang, Y., et al. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440261473171
Romantic Breakup Among Young Adults: Pathways of Getting Through with the Loss
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Formal leadership emergence in new venture teams: The role of emotion regulation and social status
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Are We Avoiding a Major Public Health Concern?
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Emotional Regulation in Pakistani Women
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Emotion regulation modulates subsequent control of unwanted memories
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“Since cognitive reappraisal usually reduces emotional intensity (Gross 2002, Gross and John 2003, Hajcak and Nieuwenhuis 2006), we preregistered the hypothesis that reapprais-ing negative memories would facilitate their subsequent retrieval suppression.”
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“Emotional regulation refers to the processes through which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how these emotions are experienced and expressed (Gross, 2002).”
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Advancing emotional intelligence in artificial intelligence: Challenges and applications
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gross, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gross, James J.
- ORCID
- Gross, James J.
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 281-291
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2128126978
- Cited by
- 4,890
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 341 · 2025: 492 · 2024: 315 · 2023: 314 · 2022: 321 · 2021: 315 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 267 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 254 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 232 · 2014: 233 · 2013: 228 · 2012: 179
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58147)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, process model of emotion regulation, emotional experience, emotional expression, memory impairment, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Psychophysiology, Social Behavior
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