A critical review of the literature on social and leisure activity and wellbeing in later life

May combine two claims.

Not all included studies identified distinct activity domains; those with only one domain grouped all activities under 'leisure' or 'social' and did not categorise them.

“Not all studies identified distinct domains; those that appear with only one domain in Table 1 grouped all activities measured under the label ' leisure' or 'social ' and did not categorise them.”

May combine two claims.

Taking all the studies into account, the summary domain of social activities had the most associations with wellbeing, health or survival (in 26 studies), followed by physical activities (15 studies) and unspecified leisure activities (14 studies).

“Taking all the studies into account, the summary domain of social activities (all social activities, including unspecified and specified, a mix of both informal and formal), followed by physical and unspecified leisure activities had the most associations with wellbeing, health or survival (in 26, 15 and 14 studies, respectively).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The included studies represented Spain, Germany, The Netherlands, Finland, Sweden, Japan, China, Taiwan, Israel, Great Britain and the United States of America.

“They represented Spain, Germany, The Netherlands, Finland, Sweden, Japan, China, Taiwan, Israel, Great Britain and the United States of America.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Primary or secondary analyses of large datasets were tapped for several included studies, including the Berlin Study of Ageing, the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Ageing, and the Americans Changing Lives study.

“Primary or secondary analyses of large datasets were tapped for several of these studies, including the Berlin Study of Ageing, the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Ageing, and the Americans Changing Lives study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Among the domain sets reported were formal, informal and solitary; intellectual, physical, and social; productive and leisure; formal, informal and physical; in-home and out-of-home; and regenerative, productive and consumptive.

“Among the domain sets reported were formal, informal and solitary ; intellectual, physical, and social; productive and leisure; formal, informal and physical ; in-home and out-of-home; and regenerative, productive and consumptive.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

All included studies included both male and female participants and were published in English in peer-reviewed journals.

“All of these studies included both male and female participants, and all were published in English in peer-reviewed journals.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Among the 42 studies, 24 were cross-sectional and 18 longitudinal.

“Of the 42 studies, 24 were cross-sectional and 18 longitudinal.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Several included studies included some sort of evaluation of quality or satisfaction with activity participation.

“In addition to these, several of the studies included some sort of evaluation of quality or satisfaction with activity participation, Quality/Satisfaction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The longitudinal studies spanned from four to 20 years (mean 8.6).

“The longitudinal studies spanned from four to 20 years (mean 8.6).”

May combine two claims.

Among the longitudinal studies, social, physical and leisure activities predicted positive outcomes in the most studies: eight, seven and six, respectively.

“Among the longitudinal studies, social, physical and leisure activities predicted positive outcomes in the most studies: eight, seven and six, respectively.”

May combine two claims.

Gender was the most commonly tested participant characteristic, appearing in about one-quarter of the studies, with enough evidence to suggest that there are distinct activity and wellbeing or survival relationships for males and females.

“Gender was the most commonly tested participant characteristic, appearing in about one-quarter of the studies, with enough evidence to suggest that there are distinct activity and wellbeing or survival relationships for males and females.”

May combine two claims.

Productive/instrumental and spiritual/service activities each accumulated evidence for associations with wellbeing, health or survival in fewer studies.

“Productive/instrumental and spiritual/service activities each accumulated evidence for associations in fewer studies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Most included studies had well over 200 participants, and 13 included over 1,000.

“but most had well over 200 participants, and 13 of the studies included over 1,000.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The content and context of activities are key elements when distinguishing various types of activity.

“Our review has suggested that the content and context of activities are key elements when distinguishing various types.”

May combine two claims.

Methodologically rigorous studies generally find positive associations between activity and wellbeing, although differences in definition and measurement make inferences difficult.

“Although differences in definition and measurement make it difficult to draw inferences about this body of evidence, methodologically rigorous studies generally find positive associations between activity and wellbeing.”

May combine two claims.

A third set of related mediating factors might be the purpose or meaning of the activity, which has been shown to be relevant in the activity/wellbeing relationship in fewer studies.

“A third set of related mediating factors might be the purpose (Everard 1999) or meaning of the activity, shown to be relevant in the activity/wellbeing relationship in fewer studies (Lawton 1993;Lawton et al. 2002).”

• cites Everard 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lawton 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lawton et al. 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Social activity has the most evidence in support of its association with positive wellbeing, even though many recent reviewed articles have strayed from this central idea of activity theory to examine and compare more types of activity.

“Although many of the recent articles reviewed have strayed from this central idea of activity theory in order to examine and compare more types of activity, it is still social activity that has the most evidence in support of its association with positive wellbeing.”

May combine two claims.

Social, leisure and productive activities each have significant associations and predictive relationships with aspects of wellbeing for older adults.

“This review of recent studies from a number of countries and cultures demonstrates that social, leisure and productive activities each have significant associations and predictive relationships with aspects of wellbeing for older adults.”

May combine two claims.

Many of the reviewed studies did not include these moderating or mediating factors, but this critical review found rigorous studies that begin to validate and refine the activity theory of ageing.

“Many of the studies reviewed did not include these moderating or mediating factors -no one study could include all -but this critical review found rigorous studies that begin to validate and refine the activity theory of ageing.”

May combine two claims.

The evidence for moderating factors is at an early stage of development, as gender is the only moderating factor with more than one or two assessment reports.

“The evidence for these findings is at an early stage of development, as gender is the only moderating factor with more than one or two assessment reports.”

May combine two claims.

The evidence suggests positive effects of informal social context, productive activity, intellectual and cultural activity, and physical activity, but these effects depend in part on individual characteristics such as gender, age, and life situation, and on cognitive appraisals about the activity.

“The evidence suggests there are positive effects of informal social context, productive activity, intellectual and cultural activity, and physical activity, but that these effects depend in part on individual characteristics, such as gender, age, life situation, and on cognitive appraisals about the activity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the reviewed literature, context is usually operationalised as social context rather than environmental context.

“Context is usually operationalised as social context (rather than environmental context, for example).”

May combine two claims.

Studies specifically designed to test the SOC model have reported indications of selectivity of leisure pursuits, narrowing the range of activities, and substituting (compensating) by replacing an effortful activity with something more manageable.

“Studies specifically designed to test the SOC model ( Janke and Davey 2006 ;Lang, Rieckmann and Baltes 2002) have reported indications of selectivity of leisure pursuits, narrowing the range of activities, and substituting (compensating) by replacing an effortful activity with something more manageable.”

• cites Janke and Davey 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lang, Rieckmann and Baltes 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wellbeing in older adults is promoted by role replacement when roles must be relinquished.

“The activity theory of ageing began with the simple propositions that wellbeing in older adults is promoted by (a) higher levels of participation in social and leisure activities, and (b) role replacement when roles must be relinquished (Havighurst 1961).”

• cites Havighurst 1961 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Many older adults with active participation in social and leisure activities report positive wellbeing.

May combine two claims.

Cross-sectional studies demonstrate associations while controlling for other potential predictors of wellbeing, but cannot establish temporal order.

“These studies demonstrate associations while controlling for other potential predictors of wellbeing, but cannot establish temporal order.”

May combine two claims.

Selection effects regarding health or socio-economic status may mean that those with poorer health or fewer resources cannot participate in as many activities, rather than that fewer activities actually makes for worse health or wellbeing.

“selection effects regarding health or socio-economic status may mean that those with poorer health or fewer resources cannot participate in as many activities, rather than that fewer activities actually makes for worse health or wellbeing (Agahi and Parker 2008).”

• cites Agahi and Parker 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Physical activity has physical benefits for older adults, including stimulation of bodily systems promoting greater range of motion and muscle tone, and internal benefits to digestion and cardiovascular health.

“These include the obvious physical benefits from any activity that involves movement -the stimulation of bodily systems promotes a greater range of motion and muscle tone, and internal benefits to digestion and cardiovascular health.Extensive documentation of the health benefits of physical activity for older adults is found in the medical, nursing, physical therapy and occupational therapy litera”

• cites Hogan 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lim and Taylor 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The variety of different activity dimensions generates a confusing array of outcomes, which suggests the need to summarise and synthesise this literature.

“The variety of different activity dimensions generates a confusing array of outcomes, which suggests the need to summarise and synthesise this literature.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Rowe and Kahn defined social engagement as remaining involved in activities that are meaningful and purposeful and maintaining close relationships.

“They defined social engagement in two ways: ' remaining involved in activities that are meaningful and purposeful ' and 'maintaining close relationships ', therefore emphasising productive and social aspects of activity for successful ageing.”

• cites Rowe and Kahn's (1998)Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Longitudinal research is a superior vehicle for studying relationships with long-term effects, and is particularly germane to research on ageing that seeks to examine determinants of intra-individual change over time.

“Longitudinal research is a superior vehicle for studying relationships with long-term effects, and is particularly germane to research on ageing that seeks to examine ' determinants of intra-individual change over time' (Schaie and Hofer 2001 : 55).”

• cites Schaie and Hofer 2001Not checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

It is unclear whether different types of activity are equally important for the wellbeing of older adults, or for all groups of older adults.

“These potential benefits of social and leisure activity in later life are intuitively appealing, yet it is unclear whether different types of activity are equally important for the wellbeing of older adults, or for all groups of older adults.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Rowe and Kahn's (1998) report posed a definition of successful ageing that featured social engagement as one of three major elements.

“Rowe and Kahn's (1998) report of the McArthur Foundation's research posed a definition of successful ageing that featured social engagement as one of three major elements.”

• cites Rowe and Kahn's (1998)Not checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The review included only studies in which statistical covariates and/or grouping variables were used to control for effects of socio-demographic attributes or other variables that might associate with wellbeing, health or survival.

“We included cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, but chose only studies in which statistical covariates and/or grouping variables were used to control for effects of socio-demographic attributes or other variables that might associate with wellbeing, health or survival.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A small minority of the included studies presented data from samples of less than 100, which may suggest insufficient power for some statistical tests.

“A small minority of the studies presented data from samples of less than 100, which may suggest there was insufficient power for some statistical tests”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

There is an absence of an empirical basis for the classification of activities in the literature on activities and ageing.

“In addition, a weakness of this literature is the absence of an empirical basis for the classification”

• cites Kerby and Ragan, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Activity theory serves as shorthand for the associations between activity and wellbeing.

“Activity theory serves as shorthand for these associations”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

An aggregated summation of discrete (in some cases unrelated) activities constitutes a reasonable index of the amount of activity in which a participant engages.

“an aggregated summation of discrete (in some cases unrelated) activities constitutes a reasonable index of the amount of activity in which a participant engages”

• cites Marottoli et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The choice of activities in which to participate is to some extent a zero-sum situation because participating in one activity means there is less time for another activity to be done.

“Because the choice to participate in a given activity means there is less time for another activity to be done, to some extent, the choice of activities in which to participate is a zero-sum situation.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Wellbeing in older adults is promoted by higher levels of participation in social and leisure activities.

“The activity theory of ageing began with the simple propositions that wellbeing in older adults is promoted by (a) higher levels of participation in social and leisure activities, and (b) role replacement when roles must be relinquished (Havighurst 1961).”

• cites Havighurst 1961 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Many older adults with active participation in social and leisure activities report positive wellbeing.

May combine two claims.

Jacobs et al. (2008) found that daily reading at baseline reduced mortality risk for men, but not women, after controlling for other factors.

“Jacobs et al. (2008) found that daily reading at baseline reduced mortality risk for men, but not women, after controlling for other factors.”

• cites Jacobs et al. (2008) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Perception of one's activity level as 'enough', satisfaction with leisure activities, the perceived value of activities, or 'activity self-evaluation' were all found to be influential variables in the activity/wellbeing relationship.

“Perception of one's activity level as 'enough ' (Hong, Hasche and Bowland 2009), satisfaction with leisure activities (Nimrod and Adoni 2006), the perceived value of activities (Katz and Yelin 2001;Neugebauer, Katz and Pasch 2003), or ' activity selfevaluation ' (Mullee et al. 2008) were all found to be influential variables in the activity/wellbeing relationship.”

• cites Hong, Hasche and Bowland 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Nimrod and Adoni 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Katz and Yelin 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Social activity may affect wellbeing or survival by reducing the risks of social isolation and by supplying emotional intimacy, socio-emotional support, reinforcement for one's self-concept and social roles, and the sense of being valued.

“We may surmise that social activity affects wellbeing or survival by reducing the risks of social isolation and by supplying emotional intimacy, socio-emotional support, reinforcement for one's self-concept and social roles, and the sense of being valued.”

May combine two claims.

There has been controversy about the universal prescription of activity in late life, including the 'busy ethic' coined by Ekerdt (1986), which holds older people to a standard of keeping busy or risk being less valuable members of society.

“Amidst improvements in quality of life and the 'compression of morbidity ' in old age, there has also been some controversy about the universal prescription of activity in late life or, as coined by Ekerdt (1986), 'the busy ethic', which holds older people to a standard of keeping busy, or risk being less valuable members of society.”

• cites Ekerdt 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Agahi and Parker (2008) found that women's mortality risk decreased with more informal and formal social activity, whereas men's survival was helped more by solitary hobbies and gardening.

“Agahi and Parker (2008) likewise found that women's mortality risk decreased with more informal and formal social activity, whereas men's survival was helped more by solitary hobbies and gardening.”

• cites Agahi and Parker (2008) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Lemon, Bengtson and Peterson (1972) described the theory as 'social activity theory' and emphasised social intimacy and role supports as the major processes to be understood.

“In their seminal 1972 article, Lemon, Bengtson and Peterson described the theory as the 'social activity theory' and emphasised social intimacy and role supports as the major processes to be understood.”

• cites Lemon, Bengtson and Peterson 1972 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Activity theory, while a reasonable shorthand, may be inadequate to explain these subtle relationships.

“Activity theory, while a reasonable shorthand, may be inadequate to explain these subtle relationships.”

May combine two claims.

Recreational or leisure activities may affect wellbeing through their intellectual or physical demands, through enjoyment and pleasure in the company or the surroundings, and through reinforcement of one's self-concept.

“Recreational or leisure activities may affect wellbeing through their intellectual or physical demands (e.g.challenging crossword puzzles), through enjoyment and pleasure in the company or the surroundings, and through the reinforcement, again, of one's self-concept, as with ' I am a good golfer; I can still bake a nice homemade pie '.”

May combine two claims.

Sweeping generalisations about the relationship of activity to wellbeing and health may not be appropriate, with implications for both policy and psychosocial practice.

“This suggests that sweeping generalisations about the relationship of activity to wellbeing and health may not be appropriate, with implications for both policy and psychosocial practice (Adams 2004;Katz 2000).”

• cites Adams 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Katz 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Silverstein and Parker (2002) found that older Swedes withdrew from leisure activities over time, but many of the lost activities were replaced by alternatives, and some respondents increased the number of activity domains in which they participated.

“They found that older Swedes withdrew from leisure activities over time, but many of the lost activities were replaced by alternatives, and some respondents actually increased the number of activity domains in which they participated.”

• cites Silverstein and Parker (2002) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Newer activity-related theories such as socio-emotional selectivity (SES) and Selection, Optimization and Compensation (SOC) espouse successful ageing through adaptation, focusing particularly on selection of appropriate social and leisure activities.

“Newer activity-related theories such as socio-emotional selectivity (SES ; Carstensen 1992;Frederickson and Carstensen 1990), and Selection, Optimization and Compensation (SOC ; Baltes and Baltes 1990;Freund and Baltes 1998) espouse successful ageing through adaptation, focusing particularly on selection of appropriate social and leisure activities (Adams 2004).”

• cites Carstensen 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Baltes and Baltes 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Adams 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

SES suggests that changes occur through selection of social partners to provide the greatest comfort and reliability, supporting the importance of informal, reliable, intimate social context, whereas SOC focuses on maintaining everyday competence by selecting and optimising activity choices while compensating for areas that are less strong.

“SES suggests that these changes occur through the selection of social partners to provide the greatest level of comfort and reliability, supporting the importance of informal, reliable, intimate social context, whereas SOC focuses on maintaining everyday competence in activitiesselecting and optimising activity choices, while compensating for areas that are less strong.”

May combine two claims.

Neither SES nor SOC precisely addresses the kernel of activity theory, that maintenance of activity and social engagement enhances wellbeing, although each explains certain aspects of the how and why of changes in activity participation.

“While each of these theories explains certain aspects of the how and why of changes in activity participation, neither precisely addresses the kernel of activity theory, that maintenance of activity and social engagement enhances wellbeing.”

May combine two claims.

Silverstein and Parker (2002) found that widowhood, higher functional limitations, and lower family support each moderated the longitudinal effect of activity participation on wellbeing.

“In the Silverstein and Parker (2002) study discussed earlier, widowhood, higher functional limitations, and lower family support each moderated the longitudinal effect of activity participation on wellbeing.”

• cites Silverstein and Parker (2002) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Herzog et al. (1998) found that 'agentic self-concept' mediated positively the activity/wellbeing relationship, along with a social self-concept, which had less of a mediating effect.

“Herzog et al. (1998) looked at a quality they called ' agentic self-concept' similar to personal mastery, which they found to mediate positively the activity/wellbeing relationship, along with a social self-concept, which had less of a mediating effect.”

• cites Herzog et al. (1998)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Critical gerontology examines existing research through a lens informed by previous theories and research, as well as the contemporary social and policy context.

“In refining theories of ageing, critical gerontology examines existing research through a lens informed by previous theories and research, as well as the contemporary social and policy context (e.g.Martinson and Minkler 2006).”

• cites Martinson and Minkler 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Werngren-Elgstrom, Brandt and Iwarsson (2006) found that productive activities were associated with better health and fewer depressive symptoms, but total activities related to subjective wellbeing.

“Werngren-Elgstrom, Brandt and Iwarsson (2006) found that productive activities were associated with better health and fewer depressive symptoms, but total activities related to subjective wellbeing.”

• cites Werngren-Elgstrom, Brandt and Iwarsson (2006) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source