The demography of an African elephant ( Loxodonta africana ) population in Amboseli, Kenya
Abstract
This paper presents basic demographic parameters of African elephants ( Loxodonta africana ) living in and around Amboseli National Park, Kenya. The study was conducted from 1972 to the present and results are based on the histories of 1778 individually known elephants. From 1972 to 1978, the Amboseli elephant population declined and then increased steadily from 1979 to the present. Births occurred throughout the year but over 80% occurred between November and May. Birth rate varied from year to year with a pattern of peaks and troughs at 4‐ to 5‐year intervals. The birth sex ratio did not differ significantly from 1:1. Mean age at first birth was 14.1 years, determined from a sample of 546 known‐age females. Mean birth interval ( n = 732) was 4.5 years for 255 females. Fecundity and calf survival varied by age of the females. Mortality fluctuated from year to year. Sex‐specific mortality rates were consistently higher for males than females at all ages.
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Female elephants can continue to reproduce up into their 60s.
“females can continue to reproduce up into their 60s (Lahdenperä et al., 2014; Moss, 2001; Turkalo et al., 2018).”
From Do elephants really never forget? What we know about elephant memory and a call for further investigation (2025) · cites this paper as Moss, 2001
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Mar, K. U., Lahdenperä, M., & Lummaa, V. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032335 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Calculation of longevity and life expectancy in captive elephants
Wiese, R. J., & Willis, K. B. (2004) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.20011 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Fecundity and population viability in female zoo elephants: problems and possible solutions
Clubb, R., Rowcliffe, M., Lee, P., Mar, K., Moss, C., & Mason, G. (2009) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600000488 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationStress and body condition are associated with climate and demography in Asian elephants
Mumby, H. S., Mar, K. U., Thitaram, C., Courtiol, A., Towiboon, P., Min-Oo, Z., Htut-Aung, Y., Brown, J. L., & Lummaa, V. (2015) · Conservation Physiology · doi:10.1093/conphys/cov030 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Before senescence: the evolutionary demography of ontogenesis
Levitis, D. (2010) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2190 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Prolonged drought results in starvation of African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
Wato, Y., HEITKÖNIG, I. M. A., van Wieren, S. E., Wahungu, G. M., Prins, H. H. T., & van Langevelde, F. (2016) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2016.09.007 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Effects of human settlement and roads on diel activity patterns of elephants ( Loxodonta africana )
Gaynor, K. M., Branco, P. S., Long, R. A., Gonçalves, D. D., Granli, P., & Poole, J. H. (2018) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/aje.12552 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Activity Budgets and Sexual Segregation in African Elephants (Loxodonta africana)
Shannon, G., Page, B. R., Mackey, R. L., Duffy, K. J., & Slotow, R. (2008) · Journal of Mammalogy · doi:10.1644/07-mamm-a-132r.1 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Senescence and age‐specific trade‐offs between reproduction and survival in female Asian elephants
Robinson, M. R., Mar, K. U., & Lummaa, V. (2012) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01735.x · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Elephant Genomes Reveal Accelerated Evolution in Mechanisms Underlying Disease Defenses
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Possible evidence of mammoth hunting during the Epigravettian at Yudinovo, Russian Plain
Germonpré, M., Sablin, M., Khlopachev, G., & Grigorieva, G. V. (2008) · Journal of Anthropological Archaeology · doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2008.07.003 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Population structure and behaviour of crop‐raiding elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda
Chiyo, P. I., & Cochrane, E. P. (2005) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00577.x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Growth and age determination of African savanna elephants
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Self-citationDemographic status of elephants in the Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves, Kenya
Wittemyer, G., Daballen, D., Rasmussen, H. B., Kahindi, O., & Douglas‐Hamilton, I. (2005) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2004.00543.x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
How Fast Does Darwin’s Elephant Population Grow?
Podani, J., Kun, Á., & Szilágyi, A. (2017) · Journal of the History of Biology · doi:10.1007/s10739-017-9488-5 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Okello, J. B. A., Wittemyer, G., Rasmussen, H. B., Arctander, P., Nyakaana, S., Douglas‐Hamilton, I., & SIEGISMUND, H. R. (2008) · Molecular Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2008.03871.x · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Age- and tactic-related paternity success in male African elephants
Rasmussen, H. B., Okello, J. B. A., Wittemyer, G., SIEGISMUND, H. R., Arctander, P., Vollrath, F. W., & Douglas‐Hamilton, I. (2007) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/arm093 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
African elephant age determination from teeth: validation from known individuals
Lee, P. C., Sayialel, S., Lindsay, W. K., & Moss, C. J. (2011) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01286.x · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationLong-Term Monitoring of Dzanga Bai Forest Elephants: Forest Clearing Use Patterns
Turkalo, A. K., Wrege, P. H., & Wittemyer, G. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085154 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Genome-Based Sexing Provides Clues about Behavior and Social Structure in the Woolly Mammoth
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Diversification, Biotic Interchange, and the Universal Trade-Off Hypothesis
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Intraspecific Strategic Responses of African Elephants to Temporal Variation in Forage Quality
WOOLLEY, L., Millspaugh, J. J., WOODS, R. J., van Rensburg, S. J., Page, B. R., & Slotow, R. (2009) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.2193/2008-412 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
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Elephants born in the high stress season have faster reproductive ageing
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Late Pleistocene proboscidean population dynamics in the North American Midcontinent
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ELEPHANT POPULATION BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
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Changes in elephant numbers in major savanna populations in eastern and southern Africa
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Cognitive consequences of our grandmothering life history: cultural learning begins in infancy
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- Authors
- Moss, C. J.
- Corresponding author
- Moss, Cynthia J.
- ORCID
- Moss, Cynthia J.
- Venue
- Journal of Zoology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2001-10
- Volume
- 255
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 145-156
- ISSN
- 0952-8369 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7998
- OpenAlex
- W2138633487
- Cited by
- 374
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 6.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Zoology (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Princeton University
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Marine animal studies overview
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Keywords
- Loxodonta africana, demography, Amboseli National Park, birth rate, sex ratio at birth, age at first birth, birth interval, fecundity, calf survival, sex differences in mortality
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