Tributary Loading and Sediment Desorption as Sources of PFAS to Receiving Waters
Open accessAbstract
Transport of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) to the Great Lakes is of great importance as this large freshwater system provides drinking water to over 40 million people. Tributary PFAS loading to the Great Lakes is poorly characterized, and the role of sediments as a source or sink of PFAS is largely unknown. We quantified 10 perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in water (4–1310 ng/L) and sediment (below detection to 3255 ng/kg) of 41 tributaries to Green Bay of Lake Michigan. We demonstrate that tributary discharge plays a major role in PFAS contribution to receiving waters. In this system, three large rivers (i.e., Fox, Menominee, and Peshtigo Rivers) contribute two-thirds of the total tributary PFAA loading to Green Bay despite their relatively low concentrations. This circumvents the current regulatory focus on sites with high concentrations. Tributary PFAA composition is linked to likely sources, including a fire-fighting foam manufacturer, other industrial activities, and airports. In addition to tributary discharge, we show that tributary sediments can contribute to PFAA transport via desorption. Perfluorooctanesulfonate rapidly desorbs from contaminated riverbed sediments when equilibrated with Lake Michigan water, indicating that sediments may act as a PFAS source if water concentrations are reduced by pollution mitigation methods.
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Hydrologic variability such as tidal movements, precipitation, and baseflow fluctuations can create a dynamic adsorption, desorption, and partitioning cycle influencing PFAS transport, dilution, and sediment mobilization.
“Hydrologic variability such as tidal movements, precipitation, and baseflow fluctuations can create a dynamic adsorption, desorption, and partitioning cycle to further influence PFAS transport, dilution, and sediment mobilization.”
From Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water and Fluvial Sediments of a Rural Gulf Coast Watershed: A Year-long Spatiotemporal Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [18]
The Introduction and ‘Significance of PFAAs Sorbed to Tributary Sediment’ sections describe PFAS partitioning, sorption and desorption, including changes driven by water concentrations. The ‘PFAA Loading to the Bay of Green Bay from Tributaries’ section estimates transport under baseflow conditions but says relationships between PFAS concentrations and changing discharge have not been established. The paper does not establish the claimed effects of tidal movements or precipitation on this cycle, dilution, or sediment mobilization. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThese findings may reflect that the Mississippi River is a major receiver of industrial and municipal wastewater or that Mississippi River sediments may serve as a source of sorbed and remobilized long-chain PFAS.
“Long-chain PFAS tend to partition to river sediments (Fagbayigbo et al., 2022; Kolpin et al., 2021), so these findings may reflect that the Mississippi River is a major receiver of industrial and municipal wastewater or that Mississippi River sediments may serve as a source of sorbed and remobilized long-chain PFAS (Balgooyen and Remucal, 2022).”
From PFAS in Iowa drinking water sources: Chemical and geospatial patterns (2025) · cites this paper as Balgooyen and Remucal, 2022
The “Significance of PFAAs Sorbed to Tributary Sediment” section reports that contaminated tributary sediments can release PFAAs, including PFOS, into water. The paper studies Green Bay tributaries, however; its discussion of wastewater inputs concerns rivers there, not whether the Mississippi River is a major receiver of industrial and municipal wastewater or whether its sediments remobilize PFAS. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPFASs released from source zones during weathering and drainage events are delivered either via suspended solids in runoffs to surface waters or via leaching to groundwater.
“PFASs released from source zones during weathering and drainage events are delivered either via suspended solids in runoffs to surface waters or via leaching to groundwater.11−13”
From Sources and Pathways of PFAS Occurrence in Water Sources: Relative Contribution of Land-Applied Biosolids in an Agricultural Dominated Watershed (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
Sorption to river sediment and bioaccumulation in biota are other potential attenuation pathways along the river reach.
“Sorption to river sediment and bioaccumulation in biota are other potential attenuation pathways along the river reach.13”
From Sources and Pathways of PFAS Occurrence in Water Sources: Relative Contribution of Land-Applied Biosolids in an Agricultural Dominated Watershed (2025) · cites this paper as [13]
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Thompson, K. A., Ray, H., Gerrity, D., Quiñones, O., Dano, E., Prieur, J., Vanderford, B., Steinle-Darling, E., & Dickenson, E. R. V. (2024) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173361 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
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Rodriguez, C. A., Schramm, M., Postma, S., McDonald, T. J., Brinkmeyer-Langford, C., & Ma, X. (2026) · ACS ES&T Water · doi:10.1021/acsestwater.6c00886
- Authors
- Balgooyen, S., & Remucal, C. K.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Corresponding author
- Remucal, Christina K.
- Venue
- ACS ES&T Water
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2022-02-10
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 436-445
- ISSN
- 2690-0637 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4210973521
- Cited by
- 73
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 9
- FWCI
- 4.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- ACS ES&T Water (publishedVersion)
- NOAA Institutional Repository (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Funders
- Wisconsin Sea Grant Institute, University of Wisconsin (R/HCE-39, R/HCE-40)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, perfluoroalkyl acids, sediment desorption, PFAS transport, Great Lakes, Green Bay, Lake Michigan, Fox River, PFOS, riverbed sediments, firefighting foam, airport emissions, industrial sources, pollution reduction
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