Assessing human health risks from per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS)-impacted vegetable consumption: A tiered modeling approach
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Irrigation water or soil contaminated with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) raises concerns among regulators tasked with protecting human health from potential PFAS-contaminated food crops, with several studies identifying crop uptake as an important exposure pathway. We estimated daily dietary exposure intake of individual PFASs in vegetables for children and adults using Monte Carlo simulation in a tiered stochastic modeling approach: exposures were the highest for young children (1-2 years > adults > 3-5 years > 6-11 years > 12-19 years). Using the lowest available human health toxicity reference values (RfDs) and no additional exposure, estimated fifth percentile risk-based threshold concentrations in irrigation water were 38 ng/L (median 180 ng/L) for perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and 140 ng/L (median 850 ng/L) for perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). Thus, consumption of vegetables irrigated with PFAS-impacted water that meets the current 70 ng/L of PFOA and PFOS U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's lifetime health advisory for drinking water may or may not be protective of vegetable exposures to these contaminants. Hazard analyses using real-world PFAS-contaminated groundwater data for a hypothetical farm showed estimated exposures to most PFASs exceeding available or derived RfDs, indicating water-to-crop transfer is an important exposure pathway for communities with PFAS-impacted irrigation water.
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Fresh produce and fruits can significantly contribute to PFAS exposure, particularly when irrigated with contaminated water.
“Additionally, fresh produce and fruits can significantly contribute to PFAS exposure, particularly when irrigated with contaminated water [195].”
From Industrial Applications, Environmental Fate, Human Exposure, and Health Effects of PFAS (2025) · cites this paper as [195]
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Unveiling the occurrence and ecological risks of triclosan in surface water through meta-analysis
Wang, Z., Li, X., Li, Y., Liu, H., Lin, C. S. K., Sun, J., & Wang, Q. (2024) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124901 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Meanwhile, the inclusion of the 95th percentile results for triclosan concentration allows for a thorough evaluation of conditions contributing to a more protective risk profile (Brown et al., 2020; Stanek et al., 2020).”
Loken, L. C., Corsi, S. R., Alvarez, D. A., Pronschinske, M. A., Lenaker, P. L., Nott, M. A., Zhang, C., Mani, E., & Ankley, G. T. (2025) · Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry · doi:10.1093/etojnl/vgaf077 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“…in humans and wildlife at very low concentrations (Ankley et al., 2021; De Silva et al., 2021), including impaired immune systems, decreased birth weights, and several types of cancer (Barry et al., 2013; Brown et al., 2020; Mancini et al., 2020; Rappazzo et al., 2017; Sunderland et al., 2019).”
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Contamination of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances in agricultural soils: A review
Biswas, B., Joseph, A., Parveen, N., Ranjan, V. P., Goel, S., Mandal, J., & Srivastava, P. (2025) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124993 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
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Co-contaminant risks in water reuse and biosolids application for agriculture
Carter, L., Adams, B., Berman, T., Cohen, N., Cytryn, E. J., Elder, F. C. T., Garduño-Jiménez, A.-L., Greenwald, D., Kasprzyk‐Hordern, B., Korach-Rechtman, H., et al. (2025) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2025.126219 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) exposure through munitions in the Russia–Ukraine conflict
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Wang, Y., Chen, Y., Meng, Q., Li, J., Jing, L., Li, H., Zhou, L., Tian, Z., Wang, J., & Hou, C. (2024) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2024.149385 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Petali, J., Pulster, E. L., McCarthy, C., Pickard, H. M., Sunderland, E. M., Bangma, J., Carignan, C. C., Robuck, A. R., Crawford, K. A., Romano, M. E., et al. (2024) · Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management · doi:10.1002/ieam.4947 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…risk assessment approaches by regulatory bodies developing FCAs remains uncommon, while such an ap - proach is utilized by some research studies to characterize the combined risks of measured PFAS in fi sh tissues (He & Ren, 2022) and other biological samples (Bil et al., 2023; Brown et al., 2020).”
Lasters, R., Groffen, T., Eens, M., & Bervoets, L. (2024) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143208 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, only few monitoring studies pointed out that homegrown food can have a large contribution to human exposure to chemicals (Brown et al., 2020; Lasters et al., 2022).”
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Kim, J. H., Kroh, G. E., Chou, H.-A., Yang, S.-H., Frese, A., Lynn, M., Chu, K., & Shan, L. (2024) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.3c10930 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
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Photocatalytic innovations in PFAS removal: Emerging trends and advances
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“As research regarding an appropriate reference dose continues for many PFAS (Brown et al., 2020; Guelfo et al., 2018), these data suggest that implementation of ACB filters could help reduce immunotoxic and other health effects associated with chronic, low-level exposures to PFAS from private well water.”
BackgroundPennoyer, E. H., Fillman, T. J., Heiger‐Bernays, W., Attfield, K. R., Baek, H.-G., Gao, S., Smith, S. C., Park, J.-S., Wu, N., & Webster, T. F. (2025) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.4c11872 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Industrial Applications, Environmental Fate, Human Exposure, and Health Effects of PFAS
Hasan, M., Habib, A., Alam, M., Islam, S., & Halim, E. (2025) · Pollutants · doi:10.3390/pollutants5040043 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Additionally, fresh produce and fruits can significantly contribute to PFAS exposure, particularly when irrigated with contaminated water [195].”
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Application of electron beam technology to decompose per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water
Londhe, K., Lee, C., Grdanovska, S., Smolinski, R., Hamdan, N., McDonough, C. A., Cooper, C., & Venkatesan, A. K. (2024) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123770 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Ezeorba, T. P. C., Okeke, E. S., Nwankwo, C. E. I., Emencheta, S. C., Enochoghene, A. E., Okeke, V. C., & Ozougwu, V. E. (2024) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143168 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Environmental Footprint Assessment of a Cleanup at Hypothetical Contaminated Site
Khan, M. A. A., Qadir, Z., Asad, M., Kouzani, A. Z., & Mahmud, M. A. P. (2021) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app11114907 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“In almost all spheres of life, people take a keen interest in understanding how goods are produced, how they are delivered and, eventually, how it all impacts the environment [5].”
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Rahman, A., Grieco, S. A., Bani, B., Friedenthal, A., White, A., & Williams, T. O. (2025) · Journal of Water Process Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jwpe.2025.107508 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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Visceral, Neural, and Immunotoxicity of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: A Mini Review
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“PFASs have become ubiquitous in the environment [13], and their presence has been documented in water [14,15], soil [16,17], and the atmosphere [18–20], as well as in various organisms, including humans [21,22], marine animals [23,24], birds [25,26], and plants [27,28].”
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“The disposal of PFAS-containing products has become a major issue globally since it has been associated with several important human health and environmental issues (Brown et al. 2020).”
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Health Effects of Emerging Contaminants: Effects on Humans Via Ingestion of Contaminated Water
Archana, C. M., Kanakalakshmi, A., Nithya, K., Kaarunya, E., & Renugadevi, K. (2025) · Emerging contaminants and associated treatment technologies · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-89591-3_9 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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“This is because C i directly affects the calculation of exposure dose, which is a central factor in risk assessment (Brown et al., 2020) (Fig.”
Zimmerman, C., Noblet, C. L., & Shea, M. (2022) · Maine policy review · doi:10.53558/dxsg7258 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“However, research has shown that PFAS migrate from agricultur- ally applied sludge, via leaching into groundwater, surface water runoff, and plant uptake by agricultural crops (Brown et al. 2020).”
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Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): persistence, toxicity, and emerging solutions
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“PFAS-containing irrigation water can contaminate soil and plants (Brown et al. 2020).”
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“The RfD is based on the reference dose of PFAS provided by EPA [17,18], and the RfD value for both PFOA and PFOS is 20 ng/kg bw/day [19]; the EDI was calculated as in Equation (2) below: where C is the concentration of PFASs detected in crops; IR is the daily intake of greens or fruits and…”
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“Field and greenhouse studies have reported that grasses, leaves, and roots typically accumulate more PFAS than kernels and fruits of cereal crops (Brown et al., 2020; Ghisi et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2022).”
- Authors
- Brown, J. B., Conder, J. M., Arblaster, J. A., & Higgins, C. P.
- Affiliations
- Colorado School of Mines (US)
- Geosyntec Consultants (United States) (US)
- Corresponding author
- Higgins, Christopher P.
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2020-11-17
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 23
- Pages
- 15202-15214
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W3098579522
- Cited by
- 135
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 5.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (NA)
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (G18A112656081)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fluoride Effects and Removal
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, vegetable consumption, dietary exposure, children's exposure, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, groundwater contamination, hazard analysis
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Caprylates, Child, Child, Preschool, Fluorocarbons, Humans, Vegetables, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Alkanesulfonic Acids, Groundwater, Drinking Water
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