Steroid estrogens, nonylphenol ethoxylate metabolites, and other wastewater contaminants in groundwater affected by a residential septic system on Cape Cod, MA
Open accessAbstract
Septic systems serve approximately 25% of U.S. households and may be an important source of estrogenic and other organic wastewater contaminants (OWC) to groundwater. We monitored several estrogenic OWC, including nonylphenol (NP), nonylphenol mono- and diethoxycarboxylates (NP1EC and NP2EC), the steroid hormones 17beta-estradiol (E2), estrone (E1) and their glucuronide and sulfate conjugates, and other OWC such as methylene blue active substances (MBAS), caffeine and its degradation product paraxanthine, and two fluorescent whitening agents in a residential septic system and in downgradient groundwater. E1 and E2 were present predominantly as free estrogens in groundwater, and near-source groundwater concentrations of all OWC were highest in the suboxic to anoxic portion of the wastewater plume, where concentrations of most OWC were similar to those observed in the septic tank on the same day. NP and NP2EC were up to 6- to 30-fold higher, and caffeine and paraxanthine were each 60-fold lower than septic tank concentrations, suggesting net production and removal, respectively, of these constituents. At the most shallow, oxic depth, concentrations of all OWC except for NP2EC were substantially lower than in the tank and in deeper wells. Yet boron, specific conductance, and the sum of nitrate-and ammonia-nitrogen were highest at this shallow depth, suggesting preferential losses of OWC along the more oxic flow lines. As far as 6.0 m downgradient, concentrations of many OWC were within a factor of 2 of near-source concentrations. The results suggest that there is the potential for migration of these OWC, which are unregulated and not routinely monitored, in groundwater.
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Some organic wastewater compounds can persist during subsurface transport and end up in groundwater, surface water, and drinking water.
“Some OWCs can persist during subsurface transport and end up in groundwater (Swartz et al., 2006;Phillips et al., 2015), surface water (Standley et al., 2008;Dougherty et al., 2010) and drinking water (Verstraeten et al., 2005;Schaider et al., 2014).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Swartz et al., 2006
Septic systems are sources of organic wastewater compounds such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and organophosphate flame retardants.
“septic systems are also sources of organic wastewater compounds (OWCs), such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and organophosphate flame retardants (Hinkle et al., 2005;Swartz et al., 2006;Conn et al., 2010).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Swartz et al., 2006
Several organic wastewater compounds detected in the Nebraska wells but not in the Cape Cod wells (acetaminophen, caffeine, paraxanthine) are well-removed in septic system leach fields and typically only persist in anoxic groundwater.
“Several OWCs detected in the Nebraska wells but not in the Cape Cod wells (acetaminophen, caffeine, paraxanthine) are well-removed in septic system leach fields (Wilcox et al., 2009;Katz et al., 2010) and typically only persist in anoxic groundwater (Swartz et al., 2006).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Swartz et al., 2006
NP, NPEOs, and NPECs were persistent in anoxic groundwater in a plume from a septic system leach pit but were not detected in oxic groundwater within the same plume.
“NP, NPEOs, and NPECs were persistent in anoxic groundwater in a plume from a septic system leach pit but were not detected in oxic groundwater within the same plume (Swartz et al., 2006).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Swartz et al., 2006
In some shallow groundwater systems close to septic system discharges where reducing conditions predominate, the majority of total nitrogen can be present as ammonium.
“In some shallow groundwater systems close to septic system discharges where reducing conditions predominate, the majority of TN can be present as NH 4 + (Verstraeten et al., 2005;Swartz et al., 2006).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Swartz et al., 2006
The median [B] in a study of landfill leachate was 4700 μg/L, which is ~20 times higher than septic tank effluent.
“The median [B] in a study of landfill leachate was 4700 μg/L (Clark and Piskin, 1977), which is ~20 times higher than septic tank effluent (Swartz et al., 2006), whereas the median concentration of total N (NO 3 -+ NH 4 + ) was 82 mg/L (Clark and Piskin, 1977), which is only around twice typical TN concentrations in septic tank effluent (Katz et al., 2010).”
From Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer (2016) · cites this paper as Swartz et al., 2006
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- Authors
- Swartz, C. H., Reddy, S., Benotti, M. J., Yin, H., Barber, L. B., Brownawell, B. J., & Rudel, R. A.
- Affiliations
- United States Geological Survey (US)
- Corresponding author
- Swartz, Christopher H.
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2006-07-18
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 16
- Pages
- 4894-4902
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2080653163
- Cited by
- 252
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 12.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Tides Foundation
- Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Effects and risks of endocrine disrupting chemicals
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
- Keywords
- groundwater contamination, xenoestrogens, nonylphenol, nonylphenol ethoxylates, estradiol, estrone, steroid hormones, methylene blue active substances, caffeine, paraxanthine, fluorescent whitening agents, contaminant transport, groundwater plume, oxic and anoxic conditions, Cape Cod
- MeSH terms
- Caffeine, Environmental Monitoring, Estrogens, Estrone, Ethylene Glycols, Massachusetts, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phenols, Sewage, Steroids, Waste Disposal, Fluid, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Waste Management, Water Purification
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