Quantifying Diffuse and Point Inputs of Perfluoroalkyl Acids in a Nonindustrial River Catchment
Abstract
Recently, the role of diffuse inputs of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) into surface waters has been investigated. It has been observed that river loads increased during rain and that street runoff contained considerable loads of PFAAs. This study aims at quantifying these diffuse inputs and identifying the initial sources in a small nonindustrial river catchment. The river was sampled in three distinct subcatchments (rural, urban, and wastewater treatment plant) at high temporal resolution during two rain events and samples were analyzed for perfluorocarboxylates and perfluorosulfonates. Additionally, rain, stormwater runoff, wastewater effluent, and drinking water were sampled. PFAA concentrations in river water were all low (e.g., < 10 ng/L for perfluorooctanoate, PFOA), but increased during rainfall. PFAA concentrations and water discharge data were integrated into a mass balance assessment that shows that 30-60% of PFAA loads can be attributed to diffuse inputs. Rain contributed 10-50% of the overall loads, mobilization of dry deposition and outdoor release of PFAA from products with 20-60%. We estimated that within a year 2.5-5 g of PFOA originating from rain and surface runoff are emitted into this small catchment (6 km(2), 12,500 persons).
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Most of these studies focused on a single watercourse with one or two events.
“Further, most of these studies focused on a single watercourse (Meyer et al., 2011; Müller et al., 2011; Zushi et al., 2008; Zushi and Masunaga, 2009) with one (Meyer et al., 2011; Müller et al., 2011) or two (Zushi and Masunaga, 2009) events.”
From Stormwater discharges affect PFAS occurrence, concentrations, and spatial distribution in water and bottom sediment of urban streams (2025) · cites this paper as Müller et al., 2011
The relevance of stormwater as a pathway for PFAS to urban streams is largely unknown.
“However, the relevance of stormwater as a pathway for PFAS to urban streams is largely unknown.”
From Stormwater discharges affect PFAS occurrence, concentrations, and spatial distribution in water and bottom sediment of urban streams (2025) · cites this paper as Müller et al., 2011
Although these studies did not report total PFAS concentrations, they suggest, similar to this study, that urban stormwater carries PFAS from urban areas to watercourses.
“Although these studies did not report total PFAS concentrations, they suggest, similar to this study, that urban stormwater carries PFAS from urban areas to watercourses.”
From Stormwater discharges affect PFAS occurrence, concentrations, and spatial distribution in water and bottom sediment of urban streams (2025) · cites this paper as Müller et al., 2011
Only a few studies have specifically investigated changes in urban streams resulting from rainfall-runoff events.
“only a few have specifically investigated changes in urban streams resulting from rainfall-runoff events (Meyer et al., 2011; Müller et al., 2011; Nguyen et al., 2011; Zushi et al., 2008; Zushi and Masunaga, 2009).”
From Stormwater discharges affect PFAS occurrence, concentrations, and spatial distribution in water and bottom sediment of urban streams (2025) · cites this paper as Müller et al., 2011
Previous studies in Toronto, Yokohama, and areas near Zürich reported increased concentrations of PFAS, particularly long-chain PFAS, during runoff events.
“Previous studies carried out in streams passing through urbanized areas, such as Toronto, Canada (Meyer et al., 2011), Yokohama, Japan (Zushi et al., 2008; Zushi and Masunaga, 2009), and areas near Zürich, Switzerland (Müller et al., 2011), reported increased concentrations of PFAS, particularly long-chain PFAS, during runoff events.”
From Stormwater discharges affect PFAS occurrence, concentrations, and spatial distribution in water and bottom sediment of urban streams (2025) · cites this paper as Müller et al., 2011
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“…passing through urbanized areas, such as Toronto, Canada (Meyer et al., 2011), Yokohama, Japan (Zushi et al., 2008; Zushi and Masunaga, 2009), and areas near Zürich, Switzerland (Müller et al., 2011), reported increased concentrations of PFAS, particularly long-chain PFAS, during runoff events.”
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“In rural and non-industrial catchments, diffuse inputs can be significant due to wet and dry atmospheric deposition [84, 99].”
- Authors
- Müller, C. E., Spiess, N., Gerecke, A. C., Scheringer, M., & Hungerbühler, K.
- Affiliations
- ETH Zurich (CH)
- Empa (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Gerecke, Andreas C.
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2011-10-28
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 23
- Pages
- 9901-9909
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2313052264
- Cited by
- 45
- References
- 10
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 2.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DORA Empa (Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (Empa)) (submittedVersion)
- Multilingual Matters (Channel View Publications) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Bundesamt für Umwelt
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Urban Stormwater Management Solutions
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Keywords
- perfluoroalkyl acids, non-point source pollution, perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorocarboxylates, stormwater runoff, mass balance, dry deposition, wastewater treatment plant effluent, drinking water contamination
- MeSH terms
- Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Models, Theoretical, Rivers
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