Berberine and its metabolites: Relationship between physicochemical properties and plasma levels after administration to human subjects
Abstract
Berberine (1) is an alkaloid used widely in the treatment of several diseases. However, its physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetics, and metabolism remain unclear, and conflicting data have been reported. In this study, the main physicochemical properties of 1 and its metabolites were evaluated, including lipophilicity, solubility, pKa, and albumin binding. A sensitive HPLC-ESIMS/MS method was developed and validated to identify 1 and its main metabolites in human plasma. This method was used to quantify their levels in the plasma of healthy volunteers and hypercholesterolemic patients following a single dose and chronic administration, respectively. In both cases, berberrubine (2) was found to be the main metabolite. Surprisingly, 2 is more lipophilic than 1, which suggests that this compound tautomerizes to a highly conjugated, electroneutral quinoid structure. This was confirmed by NMR studies. These results indicate that the higher plasma concentration of 2 was a consequence of a more efficient intestinal absorption, suggesting that berberrubine is potentially more pharmacologically active than berberine.
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Peak plasma concentration of berberine after usual doses is on the order of nanograms per milliliter, frequently below the in vitro activity threshold.
“The peak plasma concentration after usual doses is on the order of nanograms per milliliter, frequently below the activity threshold observed in vitro [49,56]”
From Berberine-Drug Interactions: Mechanisms, Clinical Relevance and Risk Stratification-A Narrative Review (2026) · cites this paper as [49]
Absolute oral bioavailability of berberine is below 1% in rats and below a few percent in humans.
“The absolute oral bioavailability of berberine is very low, estimated to be below 1% in rats and below a few percent in humans [48,49,50]”
From Berberine-Drug Interactions: Mechanisms, Clinical Relevance and Risk Stratification-A Narrative Review (2026) · cites this paper as [49]
A usual oral dose of 400-500 mg gives peak plasma concentrations of a few nanograms per milliliter, roughly 1-10 nM.
“A usual oral dose of 400–500 mg gives peak plasma concentrations of a few nanograms per milliliter, which for a molecule of about 336 Da is roughly 1–10 nM [49,56].”
From Berberine-Drug Interactions: Mechanisms, Clinical Relevance and Risk Stratification-A Narrative Review (2026) · cites this paper as [49]
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- Authors
- Spinozzi, S., Colliva, C., Camborata, C., Roberti, M., Ianni, C., Neri, F., Calvarese, C., Lisotti, A., Mazzella, G., & Roda, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Bologna (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Roda, Aldo
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Natural Products
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2014-03-05
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-772
- ISSN
- 0163-3864 (ISSN-L)
- 1520-6025
- OpenAlex
- W2006053501
- Cited by
- 161
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 5.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Natural Products (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BOA (University of Milano-Bicocca) (submittedVersion)
- Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna) (submittedVersion)
- Padua Research Archive (University of Padova) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Berberine and alkaloids research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Traditional Chinese Medicine Analysis
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Drug Transport and Resistance Mechanisms
- Keywords
- berberine, berberrubine, alkaloid metabolism, pharmacokinetics, plasma concentration, lipophilicity, solubility, pKa, albumin binding, intestinal absorption, chronic drug administration
- MeSH terms
- Administration, Oral, Adult, Alkaloids, Berberine, Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy, Female, Humans, Male, Molecular Structure
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