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Cited by 170Gender and Feminist StudiesGender Studies in LanguageGender Roles and Identity Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 33 of the 35 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 9 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Definitions of Gender and Sex: The Subtleties of Meaning

Pryzgoda, Jayde, Chrisler, Joan C.·2000·Sex Roles
DOI 10.1023/a:1007123617636
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Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This survey study collected definitions of “gender” from 137 participants and examined how they used “gender” and “sex” in sentence-completion and belief-rating tasks. It found varied and often sex-linked understandings of gender, but most participants followed biological versus social cues in structured sentences; the authors argue researchers should clarify their terms.

Key findings

  • When asked what they first think of when seeing “gender,” 43.4% of 136 respondents said “male/female,” 11.7% said “boy/girl” or “man/woman,” 11.7% said “sex,” 9.6% said gender/sex roles, 5.8% said equality/women’s rights, 5.8% said masculinity/femininity, and 4.4% said women; 22.8% gave unclassifiable responses.
  • In 135 definitions of gender, the most common references were “male/female” (34.8%) and “sex” (34.1%); masculinity/femininity appeared in 11.9%, behavior and roles each in 9.6%, and society/socially defined in 9.6%. Origins of gender were described in 42.3% of definitions and functions in 39.4%.
  • Contrary to the prediction that most would use “sex” and “gender” interchangeably, a significant majority followed sentence cues: they chose “gender,” “masculine,” and “feminine” for social-psychological cues and “sex,” “male,” and “female” for biological cues. Exceptions were Item 2 (“The girl’s gender is …”), where 63.2% chose “female,” and Item 11 (“The boy’s gender is …”), where 49.3% chose “male” and the chi-square was nonsignificant (p = .732).
  • On gender belief ratings, strongest agreement was for “a person’s sex does not necessarily match stereotypic gender assignment” (mean = 4.19) and “aspects of gender may change” (mean = 4.04); low agreement was given to items saying nonconforming males or females are unhealthy (means = 1.82 and 1.87). Participants who had taken a women’s studies course disagreed more that “gender” can be a synonym for “sex” (2.57 vs. 3.15) and that something is wrong with a male lacking a masculine gender (1.52 vs. 1.99).

Methods

  • Cross-sectional survey: 250 people were recruited on a liberal arts college campus and at community gathering places in New England; 54.8% returned surveys, yielding a final sample of 137 (96 females, 40 males, one unidentified). Median age was 24 (range 18–70); 86.9% were European American, 70.9% had attended at least some college, 44.5% were psychology students, and 24.1% had taken a women’s studies course.
  • Measures included a Gender Definition Survey with free-response items (“first thing you think of” and “define gender”), 13 sentence-completion items choosing between sex/gender or male/masculine and female/feminine, and 11 Likert-type gender belief statements; the Sexual Identity Scale assessed self-rated masculinity/femininity; demographics were also collected.
  • Analysis grouped free responses into themes/categories, used chi-square tests for sentence-completion choices, calculated means for belief items, used one-way ANOVAs to compare psychology students/nonpsychology participants and women’s studies course takers/non-takers, and correlated Sexual Identity Scale scores with belief ratings.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: gender belief statements were sometimes confusing, especially phrases like “social interpretation” and “stable personality trait,” and it is not clear all participants interpreted them the same way. The Sexual Identity Scale was also questionable: correlations were weak (accounting for only 4–6% of variance), 16 participants did not complete it, some found it unrepresentative or frustrating, and it assumes masculinity and femininity lie on one continuum with opposite poles. The authors also note that greater diversity in employment, education, and culture might have produced larger differences.
  • Evident from the text: the sentence-completion task was forced-choice and may have pushed participants toward answers, especially Items 2 and 11 where the character was labeled “girl” or “boy.” The sample was largely young, European American, well-educated, and recruited by convenience from a campus and local community, limiting generalizability.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1023/a:1007123617636

Cites

33 of 33 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 9 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § Response

    A combination of biology and culture was indicated as a cause of gender in 17.2% of the responses.

    “A combination of biology and culture was indicated as a cause of genderin17.2%oftheresponses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.
  • Findingown data
    § Response

    Functions of gender were described in 39.4% of the 135 definitions.

    “Functions of gender were described in 39.4% of the 135 definitions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.
  • Findingown data
    § Response

    References to 'masculinity/femininity' were included in 11.9% of definitions of gender.

    “'masculinity/femininity' were included in 11.9% of the definitions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.
  • Findingown data
    § Response

    References to 'male/female' were among the most common general themes in definitions of gender (34.8%).

    “The most common, general themes to emerge from the definitions were references to 'male/female' (34.8%) and 'sex' (34.1%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.
  • Findingown data
    § Response

    Among definitions describing origins of gender, psychological factors/behavior were the most common explanation (36.2%).

    “Of these, the most common explanations for the emergence of gender were psychological factors/behavior (36.2%) and society/socialization (34.5%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 28
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 19
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given
    § Participants

    The final sample consisted of 137 people (96 females, 40 males, and one unidentified participant).

    “The final sample consisted of 137 people (96 females, 40 males, and one unidentified participant).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data
    § Participants

    Psychology students made up 44.5% of the participants.

    “Psychology students made up 44.5% of the participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data
    § Participants

    On average, participants rated themselves as 'neither masculine nor feminine' on the Sexual Identity Scale.

    “On average, participants rated themselves as 'neither masculine nor feminine' on the Sexual Identity Scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data
    § Participants

    Only 24.1% of the participants had ever taken a women's studies course.

    “Only 24.1% of the participants had ever taken a women's studies course.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § Response

    Other origins of gender mentioned were biology (17.24%), physical appearance (12.1%), anatomy/genitalia (8.6%), perception of others (3.4%), and DNA (3.4%).

    “Otheroriginsofgendermentionedwere biology (17.24%), physicalappearance (12.1%), anatomy/genitalia (8.6%), perception of others (3.4%), and DNA (3.4%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data
    § Response

    135 participants responded when asked to give definitions of gender.

    “When participants were asked to give their definitions of gender, 135 responded.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § Response

    Other categories of reference in definitions of gender included 'society/socially defined' (9.6%), 'characteristics' (7.4%), 'difference' (6.7%), 'biology' (6.7%), 'anatomy' (5.9%), 'sexuality' (2.9%), and 'stereotypes' (2.9%).

    “Other categories of reference included 'society/socially defined' (9.6%), 'characteristics' (7.4%), 'difference' (6.7%), 'biology' (6.7%), 'anatomy' (5.9%), 'sexuality' (2.9%), and 'stereotypes' (2.9%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data
    § Response

    Singular definitions mentioned 'psychology,' 'politics,' 'emotion,' and 'culture.'

    “Singular definitions mentioned 'psychology,' 'politics,' 'emotion,' and 'culture.'”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § Response

    Definitions from psychology students were varied and did not fall into any particular definition category.

    “Yet, definitions from psychology students were varied and did not to fall into any particular definition category.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § Response

    The more masculine males rated themselves on the SIS, the more they agreed that there is something wrong with females who are not appropriately feminine (item 9; r = -.45, p < .05).

    “The more masculine males rated themselves, the more they agreed that it is always correct to use the word gender when describing someone as male or female (item 2; r D ¡ : 41, p &lt; : 05) and that there is something wrong with males and females who are not appropriately masculine or feminine (item 5, r D ¡ : 398, p &lt; : 05; item 9, r D ¡ : 45, p &lt; : 05).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Sexual Identity Scale (SIS) is a valid measure of participants' masculinity/femininity.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    The rest of the sentence only implied that the characters have gender, but did not give any information about that gender.

    “The rest of the sentence only implied that these characters have gender, but it did not give any information about that gender.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § Response

    The strongest agreement on gender belief statements was given to the item that aspects of gender may change (mean 4.04) and to the item that one's sex need not match gender stereotypes (mean 4.19).

    “The strongest agreement was given to the item that suggested that aspects of gender may change ( ¯ x D 4 : 04) and to the item that stated that one's sex need not match gender stereotypes (¯ x D 4 : 19).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The gender belief items measure participants' conceptualizations of gender rather than their beliefs about appropriate behavior for males and females.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § Response

    The more masculine males rated themselves on the SIS, the more they agreed that there is something wrong with males who are not appropriately masculine (item 5; r = -.398, p < .05).

    “The more masculine males rated themselves, the more they agreed that it is always correct to use the word gender when describing someone as male or female (item 2; r D ¡ : 41, p &lt; : 05) and that there is something wrong with males and females who are not appropriately masculine or feminine (item 5, r D ¡ : 398, p &lt; : 05; item 9, r D ¡ : 45, p &lt; : 05).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Sexual Identity Scale (SIS) is a valid measure of participants' masculinity/femininity.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § DISCUSSION

    Most participants responded to each gender belief statement, but some made comments suggesting the items were confusing.

    “Most participants responded to each statement, but some made comments that suggested that the items were confusing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The gender belief items measure participants' conceptualizations of gender rather than their beliefs about appropriate behavior for males and females.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § DISCUSSION

    Several participants (n = 16) did not complete the SIS and expressed concern that the scale was not representative of them and was frustrating to use.

    “Several participants ( n D 16) did not complete the scale, and they expressed concern that the scale was not representative of them and was frustrating to use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Sexual Identity Scale (SIS) is a valid measure of participants' masculinity/femininity.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Response

    No typical response was found for participants who were psychology students or who had ever taken a women's studies course.

    “No typical response was found for participants who were psychology students or who had ever taken a women's studies course.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    Items 2 and 11 gave clues about sex by labeling the main character as a 'girl' or 'boy.'

    “Items 2 and 11 gave clues about sex by labeling the main character as a 'girl' or 'boy.'”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    Participants could only choose female or feminine to complete the girl's sentence and only male or masculine to complete the boy's sentence.

    “As they looked at the response choices, participants then saw that they could only choose female or feminine to complete the girl's sentence and only male or masculine to complete the boy's sentence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Definitions of Gender and Sex: The Subtleties of Meaning

    Hamilton (1988) argued that both hearing and using masculine generics creates male bias in people's impressions and images of the subject under discussion.

    “Hamilton (1988) argued that both hearing and using masculine generics creates male bias in people's impressions and images of the subject under discussion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hamilton, 1988 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisereasoning
    § Definitions of Gender and Sex: The Subtleties of Meaning

    The meanings people glean from words are bound to influence both their understanding and their subsequent communication.

    “The meanings people glean from words are bound to influence both their understanding and their subsequent communication.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Definitions of Gender and Sex: The Subtleties of Meaning

    When people are grouped into gender categories based on their sex, the study is just as likely to be about sex differences-perhaps more likely.

    “But when people are grouped into gender categories based on their sex, the study is just as likely to be about sex differences-perhaps more likely.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning
    § Definitions of Gender and Sex: The Subtleties of Meaning

    For the most part, authors of studies on sex and gender have not conscientiously defined the terms sex and gender in their writing; the words have been used interchangeably.

    “For the most part, the authors of these studies have not conscientiously defined the terms sex and gender in their writing. Instead, the words have been used interchangeably, presumably to make a standard and general differentiation between 'men' and 'women,' 'boys' and 'girls,' and even 'male' and 'female' rats.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Participants

    A large percentage (54.8%) of the surveys were returned.

    “A large percentage (54.8%) of the surveys were returned.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation
    § Sexual Identity Scale

    Cronbach's alpha for the Sexual Identity Scale was .964 for the total sample, .850 for women, and .873 for men.

    “Cronbach's alpha for this scale was reported to be .964 for the total sample, .850 for women, and .873 for men.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stern, Barak, & Gould, 1987 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Premisenone given
    § Definitions of Gender and Sex: The Subtleties of Meaning

    People who study and think about sex and gender would probably agree that they are not synonyms.

    “Despite the ongoing controversies, people who study and think about sex and gender would probably agree that they are not synonyms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Definitions of Gender and Sex: The Subtleties of Meaning

    For several decades, psychologists have written about sex and gender when studying males and females and women and men.

    “For several decades, psychologists have taken the opportunity to write about sex and gender when studying males and females and women and men (Deaux & Kite, 1987).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Deaux & Kite, 1987

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisenone given
    § Definitions of Gender and Sex: The Subtleties of Meaning

    Many studies have focused on sex or gender differences or both.

    “Many studies have focused on sex or gender differences or both.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Participants

    Most of the surveys returned were complete.

    “Most of the surveys returned were complete.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Participants

    One respondent did not complete the first section of the survey; therefore, the total number of collected definitions was 136.

    “One respondent did not complete the first section of the survey; therefore, the total number of collected definitions was 136.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Definitions of Gender and Sex: The Subtleties of Meaning

    Aspects of gender roles, stereotypes, sex and gender differences, gender and sexuality, gender and power, gender and groups, and gender and cognition have been studied again and again.

    “Aspects of gender roles, stereotypes, sex and gender differences, gender and sexuality, gender and power, gender and groups, and gender and cognition have been studied again and again (Deaux & Lafrance, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Deaux & Lafrance, 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    The authors suggest that the sentence completion results may be because the sentences were fairly straightforward and participants were aware that they had to choose either 'sex' or 'gender.'

    “This may be because the sentences were fairly straightforward and participants were aware that they had to choose either 'sex' or 'gender.'”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    In many cases, it might be accurate for people to assume that 'gender' is referring to sex, especially if the determination of gender was made by having participants check either the male or the female box on a questionnaire.

    “In many cases, it might be accurate for people to assume that 'gender' is referring to sex-especially if the determination of gender was made by having participants check either the male or the female box on a questionnaire.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data
    § DISCUSSION

    'Gender' and 'sex' are both different and the same depending upon whom one asks and how one asks them.

    “'Gender' and 'sex' are both different and the same depending upon whom one asks and how one asks them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given
    § Definitions of Gender and Sex: The Subtleties of Meaning

    Much of the research on sex and gender has focused either on what people believe about the behavior of men and women or on the actual behavioral differences between men and women.

    “Much of the research on sex and gender has focused either on what people believe about the behavior of men and women or on the actual behavioral differences between men and women.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    One reason participants may not have responded that they thought 'sex' when they saw 'gender' is that they may have felt the word 'sex' was too ambiguous to convey the meaning 'male/female,' as it could also be interpreted to mean 'sexual intercourse.'

    “One reason participants may not have responded that they thought 'sex' when they saw 'gender' is that they may have felt the word 'sex' was too ambiguous to convey the meaning 'male/female,' as it could also be interpreted to mean 'sexual intercourse.'”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' free responses about what they thought when they saw 'gender' reflect their underlying conceptualizations of gender.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data
    § DISCUSSION

    Those who see 'gender' as similar to 'sex' are fairly united in their descriptions and conceptualizations of gender, whereas those who strayed from common themes used very different language and expressed a variety of ideas.

    “It appears that those who see 'gender' as similar to 'sex' are fairly united in their descriptions and conceptualizations of gender. But those who strayed from the common themes used very different language and expressed a variety of ideas that make it clear how complicated talking about gender can be.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' free responses about what they thought when they saw 'gender' reflect their underlying conceptualizations of gender.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    It is possible that participants believed they had been given more information about the character's sex than gender, and therefore were more likely to interpret 'gender' as signifying sex.

    “It is possible that participants believed that they had been given more information about the character's sex than gender, and therefore were more likely to interpret 'gender' as signifying sex.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data
    § DISCUSSION

    The variety of responses indicates that some people hold simple and straightforward views of gender, whereas others see it as a complex part of the human experience.

    “The variety of responses indicate that some people hold simple and straightforward views of gender, whereas others see it as a complex part of the human experience.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' free responses about what they thought when they saw 'gender' reflect their underlying conceptualizations of gender.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    The presented choice between 'sex' and 'gender' may have alerted participants to the fact that the meanings of the two words were thought to be different for the task.

    “Thispresentedchoicemayhavealertedparticipantstothefactthat for the purposes of the task the meanings of the two words were thought to be different.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    It is possible that the word 'gender' suggested both an anatomical and a behavioral meaning for participants.

    “It is possible that the word 'gender' suggested both an anatomical and a behavioral meaning for participants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § DISCUSSION

    When psychologists describe something as gendered or talk about gender differences, there is about a 50% chance that readers will assume that they are referring to sex and about a 50% chance that readers will question what they mean.

    “When psychologists describe something as gendered or talk about gender differences, there is about a 50% chance that readers will assume that they are referring to sex and about a 50% chance that readers will question what they mean.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data
    § DISCUSSION

    Although several small correlations were found between self-ratings of masculinity/femininity and gender belief items, the information gathered from the Sexual Identity Scale (SIS) may be questionable.

    “Although several small correlations were found between self-ratings of masculinity/femininity and gender belief items, the information gathered from the Sexual Identity Scale (SIS) may be questionable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Sexual Identity Scale (SIS) is a valid measure of participants' masculinity/femininity.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    Once 'gender' was interpreted as signifying sex, participants may have been more inclined to choose male and female to complete the sentences.

    “Once 'gender' was interpreted as signifying sex, these participants may have been more inclined to choose male and female to complete the sentences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data
    § DISCUSSION

    Although the mean ratings for psychology students and participants who had taken women's studies courses were slightly different from the rest of the sample, this difference was only seen on a few items and did not indicate any extreme difference in beliefs.

    “Although the mean ratings for psychology students and participants who had taken women's studies courses were slightly different from the rest of the sample, this difference was only seen on a few items, and it did not indicate any extreme difference in beliefs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The gender belief items measure participants' conceptualizations of gender rather than their beliefs about appropriate behavior for males and females.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § DISCUSSION

    The design of the sentence completion items may have forced participants toward the answers they chose.

    “Alternatively, the design of the sentence completion items may have forced participants toward the answers they chose.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data
    § DISCUSSION

    The mean ratings show that the average participant views gender as a flexible phenomenon, which may change in accordance with a person's experiences and is not determined by biological sex.

    “The mean ratings show that the average participant views gender as a flexible phenomenon, which may change in accordance with a person's experiences and is not determined by biological sex.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The gender belief items measure participants' conceptualizations of gender rather than their beliefs about appropriate behavior for males and females.
46 of 46

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No psychological research has been done on people's usage of the word 'gender' or their definitions of gender.

    “Anumber of psychologists have written about gender origins and gender definitions, but it does not appear that any psychological research has been done on people's usage of the word 'gender' or their definitions of gender.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' written definitions and sentence completions accurately reflect their beliefs about and usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

    “Definitions of the word 'gender' were collected from 137 participants, who also completed questionnaires designed to determine aspects of the usage of the words 'gender' and 'sex.'”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The sentence completion items validly distinguish social-psychological cues from biological cues for the words 'gender' and 'sex'.

    “The responses to the sentence completion section show that, contrary to our predictions, a significant majority of participants did follow the sentence cues; they chose the words 'gender,' 'masculine,' and 'feminine' in response to social-psychological cues and the words 'sex,' 'male,' and 'female'inresponsetobiologicalcues.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' free responses about what they thought when they saw 'gender' reflect their underlying conceptualizations of gender.

    “Looking at the free responses participants gave when asked what they thought when they saw 'gender,' it appears that many thought of 'sex.'”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The gender belief items measure participants' conceptualizations of gender rather than their beliefs about appropriate behavior for males and females.

    “The items were designed to find out about participants' conceptualizations of gender, rather than their beliefs about appropriate behavior for males and females.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Masculinity and femininity fall along the same continuum and are anchored on opposite poles of that continuum.

    “The scale does contain an inappropriate assumption that masculinity and femininity fall along the same continuum and that the concepts are anchored on opposite poles of that continuum.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Sexual Identity Scale (SIS) is a valid measure of participants' masculinity/femininity.

    “Several correlations were found between participants' Sexual Identity Scores (SIS) and their answers on items 4, 5, 6, 9, and 11.”
7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

  • Reported sample size does not match the two group sizes

    Minor

    The stated psychology-student and nonpsychology-participant group sizes sum to 135, not the reported N of 120.

    Reported 120 · recomputed 135

1 of 1

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 35 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. Blum, D.(1998, September/October).The gender blur.Utne Reader, 89, 45–48.
  2. Harris, J.R.(1998, September/October).”Only girls wear barrettes.” Utne Reader, 89, 49–50.
  3. Lakoff, R.(1975).Language and women's place.New York: Harper & Row.
  4. Raymond, K.(1998, September/October).Pomosexual pioneer.Utne Reader, 89, 57–58.
  5. Spayde, J.(1998, September/October).Indefinable heroes.Utne Reader, 89, 52–55.
  6. Steiner, A.(1998, September/October).Glam I am.Utne Reader, 89, 59–60.
  7. Strickland, B.K., Noelle, M., Henderson, M., & Bornstein, K.(1999, March).Perspectives on gender ambiguity.Symposium presented at the meeting of the Association for Women in Psychology, Providence, RI.
  8. Turkle, S.(1998, September/October).Drag net.Utne Reader, 89, 51–55.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Metadata

Authors
Pryzgoda, J., & Chrisler, J. C.
Affiliations
Connecticut College (US)
Venue
Sex Roles
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2000-10
Volume
43
Issue
7-8
Pages
553-569
ISSN
  • 0360-0025 (ISSN-L)
  • 1573-2762
DOI
10.1023/a:1007123617636
OpenAlex
W202287061
Semantic Scholar
2e43fd9968c0f45edf68a9dec5ee30fb8e1d215a
Cited by
170
References
35
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 3
FWCI
4.31
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
Locations
Sex Roles (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Studies in Language
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Keywords
gender, sex, conceptual ambiguity

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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