Risks and Opportunities for Youth in the Digital Era: A Cyber-Developmental Approach to Mental Health
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Abstract. Due to continued groundbreaking digital advancements, Internet use has increased significantly. This has led to a heated debate in relation to weighing the many advantages of the technology against its potentially deleterious effects. To address such questions, experts converge on the need for greater knowledge around the way individual differences, partly shaped by an individual’s unique experiences of engaging with the medium, and partly by other real-life experiences, lead to different developmental trajectories. Consequently, the goals of the present review are to (i) broadly describe differences in digital media applications, users, and usage; (ii) introduce the Cyber-Developmental Framework (CDF), as an overarching framework for understanding individual differences in adaptive and maladaptive digital media use among youth; (iii) delineate the cyber-component of this framework in relation to users’ experience of the digital context, their activity within it, as well as their digital self-presence, which may have an impact on their digital media use; and (iv) summarize priorities and future directions through the lens of this CDF. Within this context, this review particularly emphasizes the effect of digital media use on youth’s psychological well-being. It is argued that the trajectory youth will follow in their use of the Internet is a function of the interplay between their characteristics, their proximate and distal contexts, and the particular features of the digital application(s) that the individual is engaged in. The review points to the need to conduct research focusing on better understanding the developmental and digital-context-related influences on youth’s trajectories of Internet use.
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Skeggs, A., & Orben, A. C. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-025-02167-9 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Translating the user-avatar bond into depression risk: A preliminary machine learning study.
Brown, T., Burleigh, T., Schivinski, B., Bennett, S., Gorman-Alesi, A., Blinka, L., & Stavropoulos, V. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.12.038 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
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Self-citationZarate, D., Allen, A., Kannis‐Dymand, L., Karimi, L., & Stavropoulos, V. (2023) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-023-01164-1 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationChemnad, K., Aziz, M., Al-Harahsheh, S. T., Abdelmoneium, A., Baghdady, A., & Ali, R. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2396434 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Šmahel, D., Güleç, H., Svestkova, A., Dědková, L., & Macháčková, H. (2022) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2022.2135501 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Li, L., Niu, Z., Song, Y., Griffiths, M. D., Hu, W., Yu, Z., & Mei, S. (2023) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-023-01049-3 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationSaquib, N., Saquib, J., AlSalhi, A., Carras, M. C., Labrique, A. B., Al-Khani, A. M., Basha, A. C., & Almazrou, A. (2023) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2023.2256826 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Editorial: User-Avatar Bond: Risk and Opportunities in Gaming and Beyond
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Self-citationNgo, T. T. A., Nguyen, H. L. T., Mai, H. T. A., Nguyen, H., Tran, T. H., & Hoang, P. L. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0322866 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Gaming Disorder: The role of a gamers flow profile
Footitt, T. A., Christofi, N., Poulus, D., Carras, M. C., & Stavropoulos, V. (2024) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2024.100555 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationGaming disorder in the ICD-11: the state of the game
Musetti, A., Floros, G. D., Chiappedi, M. A., & Stavropoulos, V. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-07576-8 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationFlynn, S., Maher, R. D., & Byrne, J. (2023) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.107410 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Zhou, X., Liao, M., Górowska, M. P., Chen, X., & Li, Y. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2024.00021 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Hein, K., Conkey-Morrison, C., Burleigh, T., Poulus, D., & Stavropoulos, V. (2024) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104298 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationSalmela‐Aro, K., & Motti‐Stefanidi, F. (2022) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000483 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationMukherjee, T. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-4969-4_21 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Gaming Disorder Among Children and Adolescents
Griffiths, M. D., Stavropoulos, V., Pontes, H. M., Carbonell, X., King, D. L., Lin, C., Demetrovics, Z., & Király, O. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-69362-5_26 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationPredicting proteus effect via the user avatar bond: a longitudinal study using machine learning
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Self-citationPadli, Prasetyo, T. F., Kurniawan, R., Putra, R. A., & Candra, O. (2024) · Social Science and Humanities Journal · doi:10.18535/sshj.v8i07.1213 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Toma, R. A., Anderson, C. A., Matichescu, M. L., Franţ, A., Almăjan-Guţă, B., Cândea, A., & Bailey, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1019976 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Shaping Teenagers' Moral in the Digital Era: Islamic Education Perspective
Yusnita, E., Prasetiyo, A. E., Hasanah, U., Octafiona, E., & Rahmatika, Z. (2023) · Jurnal Intelektual Jurnal Pendidikan dan Studi Keislaman · doi:10.33367/ji.v13i1.3529 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Pérez-Torres, V. (2024) · Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2024-4-2 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Grajek, M. K., Jurys, T., & Rozmiarek, M. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12091143 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Yue, Z., Bickham, D. S., Hunt, E. A., Schwamm, S., & Rich, M. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2374895 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The adolescent Internet Adaptability Scale: Development and psychometric properties
Wang, W., Ye, J., Dong, R., Ma, S., Huang, D., & Zhao, X. (2025) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2025-1-5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rejaän, Z., van der Valk, I. E., & Branje, S. (2024) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12920 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Is ostracism deadly? The relationship between different types of ostracism and adolescent suicide
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The effects of an early intervention on adults’ gaming-related problems – a pilot study
Männikkö, N., Ojala, P., Hylkilä, K., Kääriäinen, M., Vähänikkilä, H., & Mustonen, T. (2022) · Journal of Addictive Diseases · doi:10.1080/10550887.2022.2030640 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Miconi, D., Santavicca, T., Frounfelker, R. L., Mounchingam, A. N., & Rousseau, C. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01739-0 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cunningham, J., McElroy, E., & Shevlin, M. E. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104998 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Disordered gaming: the interplay between user-avatar bond and sexual minority status
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Santoianni, F. (2024) · Integrated science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-58363-6_2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Kurhan, S., Çar, B., Kurhan, C. O., Kurtoğlu, A., Eken, Ö., & Polat, G. (2024) · Balneo and PRM Research Journal · doi:10.12680/balneo.2024.687 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Maher, R. D., Flynn, S., & Byrne, J. (2025) · International Journal of Qualitative Methods · doi:10.1177/16094069251370188 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Profiling Cross-Generational Cyber Resilience through Scale Development
Takács, J. M., & Pogátsnik, M. (2025) · International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy (iJEP) · doi:10.3991/ijep.v15i7.58939 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Language of change in online narratives of recovery from disordered gaming
Kavvadias, S., Schivinski, B., Arachchilage, N. A. G., Brown, T., & Stavropoulos, V. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-33991-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationBrown, T., Tanti, V., Wilson, N., Griffiths, M. D., Lubman, D. I., Hein, K., & Stavropoulos, V. (2026) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2026.152694 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationMaher, R. D., Flynn, S., & Byrne, J. (2024) · Child Care in Practice · doi:10.1080/13575279.2024.2309097 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hein, K., Zarate, D., Burleigh, T. L., & Stavropoulos, V. (2024) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2024.152509 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationStavropoulos, V., Prokofieva, M., Zarate, D., Carras, M. C., Ratan, R., Kowert, R., Schivinski, B., Burleigh, T. L., Poulus, D., Karimi, L., et al. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2024.00063 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationChow, C. H., Zhang, H., & Cheng, C. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-025-01443-z · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Korjonen‐Kuusipuro, K., & Tuuva-Hongisto, S. (2025) · Journal of Applied Youth Studies · doi:10.1007/s43151-025-00163-4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Introduction: Children, Young People, and Online Harms
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Overlapping cities: Trans-urban augmentation in the digital era of western cities
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How social and personal resources support teaching and learning effectiveness
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Online Counseling as a Service in College: A Generation Z Perspective
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Profiling gaming disorder risk: the role of family communication and vertical individualism
Hein, K., Loriente, B. X., Eddy, S., Poulus, D., Zarate, D., & Stavropoulos, V. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08041-1
Self-citationA Framework for Digital Safety: Designing Social Media InterventionsPreprint
Vergara, C. M. J., Ranka, H., Kothari, N., Mehta, S., & Lalwani, J. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5376103
Evaluating value measures across cultures: study on PVQ-RR, PVQ-40, and PVQ-21 in Turkey
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Preadolescents and Their Online World: Activities, Opportunities, and Challenges
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Proteus effect and health profiles: associations between physical inactivity and avatar behaviours
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Self-citationSelf-construction in play: Children’s identity exploration in digital social games in China
Ting, W., Zhang, Y., & Zhu, R. (2026) · Journal of Children and Media · doi:10.1080/17482798.2026.2679998
Application of Psychological Theories in European Human–Computer Interaction
Kujala, S., Distler, V., & Welsch, R. (2026) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000593
Discriminación en la era digital
Smith‐Castro, V., Gallardo-Allen, E., & Delgado, M. M. (2026) · Global Media Journal México · doi:10.29105/gmjmx23.45-565
Machine learning of digital traces to detect risk for behavioural addictions online
Burleigh, T. L., Hao, Y., Schivinski, B., Prokofieva, M., Zarate, D., Brown, T., & Stavropoulos, V. (2026) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-026-00604-8
Self-citationADHD Symptoms and Loneliness in Internet Gaming Disorder: A Nationwide Study in Japan
Sugawara, N., Tabuchi, T., Tokumitsu, K., & Yasui‐Furukori, N. (2026) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-026-01726-z
- Authors
- Stavropoulos, V., Motti-Stefanidi, F., & Griffiths, M. D.
- Affiliations
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (GR)
- National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
- Nottingham Trent University (GB)
- Venue
- European Psychologist
- Publisher
- Hogrefe Publishing Group
- Published
- 2022-04
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 86-101
- ISSN
- 1016-9040 (ISSN-L)
- 1878-531X
- OpenAlex
- W3194284217
- Cited by
- 73
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 16.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- European Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
- Victoria University Research Repository (Victoria University) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Digital Media and Philosophy
- Keywords
- youth, digital media use, internet use, individual differences, psychological well-being, developmental trajectories, digital context
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