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Cited by 748Impact of Technology on AdolescentsSexuality, Behavior, and TechnologyChild Development and Digital Technology

Internet use and Problematic Internet Use: A systematic review of longitudinal research trends in adolescence and emergent adulthood

Open access
Anderson, Emma Louise, Steen, Eloisa, Stavropoulos, Vasileios·2017·International Journal of Adolescence and Youth
DOI 10.1080/02673843.2016.1227716
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Abstract

The aim of this systematic literature review is to map the longitudinal research in the field of Internet Use (IU) and Problematic Internet Use (PIU) in adolescents and emergent adults. Further, this study endeavours to examine the terminology and instruments utilized in longitudinal IU and PIU research and investigate whether statistically significant results have arisen from the areas of research focus. In a total of 29 studies, trends in the research of adolescent/emergent adult IU and PIU were discovered. These trends were conceptualized into individual, contextual and activity-related factors. Findings suggested that individual factors are the most researched and have demonstrated significant relationships with adolescent/young adult PIU. However, more research on contextual and activity-related factors is needed in order to achieve a clearer understanding of young people’s IU and PIU behaviours, and to incorporate into a comprehensive model that will guide future research in this growing field.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review maps 29 longitudinal studies of Internet Use (IU) and Problematic Internet Use (PIU) in adolescents and emergent adults, finding that individual factors are most researched and often significantly related to PIU, while contextual and activity-related factors are under-researched. It also documents inconsistent terminology and multiple self-report measures, and calls for a dimensional IU-PIU continuum and more balanced longitudinal research.

Key findings

  • Across 29 studies, variables were grouped into individual (n = 22), contextual (n = 4), and Internet activity-related (n = 1) influences; 21 of the 22 individual variables had statistically significant risk or protective associations with IU-PIU.
  • Gender was examined in 12 studies; 7 found males at higher risk with the difference widening over time, while 3 did not support gender-related differences. Psychopathology predicted PIU, with evidence of bi-directional relationships; substance use showed no predictive or protective relationships (0% significance ratio in Table 6).
  • Contextual factors such as parenting/family factors and classroom environment had 100% significance ratios in Table 6; peer findings were mixed. For activity-related factors, online gaming was a consistently strong predictor of PIU, but only one Internet activity-related variable was found to have been examined longitudinally.
  • Terminology and measurement varied: there was no standardized definition, 13 different scales were used, and the most widely used instruments were the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS), and Chen Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS); most studies reported high reliability.

Methods

  • Systematic literature review; searched ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Academic Search Complete on 13 June 2016 using title/abstract terms for Internet/web/online/gaming/video game and longitudinal/longitudinally, limited to full-text, English, peer-reviewed, 1994–2016, human participants.
  • 670 database records plus 8 from reference lists; after duplicates, 379 records screened, 115 full-text articles assessed, and 29 studies met inclusion criteria: longitudinal with at least 2 months between time points, IU/PIU as dependent variable, adolescents or young adults, and empirical data; sexual or gambling addictions were excluded.
  • Methodological quality was evaluated with attention to reliability of IU/PIU measures; findings were synthesized qualitatively and tabulated by variables and significance ratios.

Limitations

  • Stated: the review included only adolescent/emerging adult populations and IU-PIU as the dependent variable; future research should assess all developmental stages and multiple time waves, and cultural influences on IU-PIU predictors were not discussed.
  • Evident: reliance on self-report measures (aside from one study also using parental reports) raises reliability and validity concerns; inconsistent definitions and 13 different scales limit comparability.
  • Evident: only 29 studies were included, with contextual and Internet activity-related factors especially under-represented, limiting conclusions about those domains.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/02673843.2016.1227716

Cites

59 of 59 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 112 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingnone given

    The trends in adolescent/emergent adult IU and PIU research were conceptualized into individual, contextual and activity-related factors.

    “These trends were conceptualized into individual, contextual and activity-related factors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 29 reviewed longitudinal studies are sufficiently comparable in their definitions and measures of IU/PIU to be synthesized into aggregate trends.
  • Findingown data

    Individual factors are the most researched factors in longitudinal adolescent/emergent adult IU and PIU research.

    “Findings suggested that individual factors are the most researched and have demonstrated significant relationships with adolescent/young adult PIU.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 29 reviewed longitudinal studies are sufficiently comparable in their definitions and measures of IU/PIU to be synthesized into aggregate trends.
  • Findingown data

    A total of 29 studies were deemed eligible for this review after meeting all inclusion criteria.

    “A total of 29 studies were deemed eligible for this review after meeting all the above criteria.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    There is variation in the instruments used to measure IU-PIU longitudinally.

    “As there is variation in the definitions, there are also several different instruments being used to measure IU-PIU longitudinally.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    The majority of existing longitudinal studies during adolescence and emergent adulthood have only marginally highlighted potential temporal or developmental aspects of PIU.

    “The majority of the existing longitudinal studies during adolescence and emergent adulthood have not conceptualized PIU behaviours on a continuum with adaptive IU, and have only marginally highlighted its potential temporal or developmental aspects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 29 reviewed longitudinal studies are sufficiently comparable in their definitions and measures of IU/PIU to be synthesized into aggregate trends.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 19
  • May combine two claims. 23
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    A third group of researchers suggests the term Internet Addiction based on similarities between aspects of PIU and addictive behaviours regarding impact on concurrent and future general adaptation.

    “A third group of researchers emphasize on the similarities between aspects of PIU and addictive behaviours regarding how PIU impacts concurrent and future general adaptation, thus suggesting the term Internet Addiction (Chen, Chen, & Gau, 2015;Cho, Sung, Shin, Lim, & Shin, 2013;Dong, Lu, Zhou, & Zhao, 2011;Ko, Liu, et al., 2009;Ko, Yen, Yen, Lin, & Yang, 2007;Mittal et al., 2013;Stavropoulos, Kuss”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Chen, Chen, & Gau, 2015

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    • cites Cho, Sung, Shin, Lim, & Shin, 2013

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    • cites Dong, Lu, Zhou, & Zhao, 2011

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    There is no standardized definition of PIU supported by all in the field.

    “While there is consensus amongst researchers that the phenomenon of 'PIU' exists, there is no standardized definition supported by all in the field.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    One reviewed study used a 10-item shortened version of the IAT adapted for a Chinese population.

    “Four of the reviewed studies used all 20 items on Young's scale (Cho et al., 2013;Dong et al., 2011;Mittal et al., 2013;Stavropoulos et al., 2015), one study used a version shortened to 10 items adapted for a Chinese population (Yu & Shek, 2013), and one study used an adapted version of the IAT that contained the same number of items and response options as the original version (King, Delfabbro,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu & Shek, 2013

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    There is consensus among researchers that the phenomenon of PIU exists.

    “While there is consensus amongst researchers that the phenomenon of 'PIU' exists, there is no standardized definition supported by all in the field.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    A fourth group of studies conceptualizes PIU based primarily on the Internet application abused, especially when it includes Internet gaming.

    “Finally, a fourth group of studies conceptualize PIU based primarily on the Internet application abused, especially when the latter includes Internet gaming.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The significance of the particular Internet application abused, especially Internet gaming, has attracted greater attention compared to the abuse of other Internet applications.

    “Furthermore, the significance of the particular Internet application abused (especially when this refers to Internet gaming) has attracted greater attention compared to the abuse of other Internet applications.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 29 reviewed longitudinal studies are sufficiently comparable in their definitions and measures of IU/PIU to be synthesized into aggregate trends.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    The current literature lacks a conceptual framework that would embrace the developmental influence pivotal to the study of behaviour during adolescence and emergent adulthood.

    “Despite the important theoretical contributions to conceptualizing PIU predictors and consequences, the current literature lacks a conceptual framework that would embrace the developmental influence that is pivotal to the study of behaviour, particularly during this transitional developmental time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingcitation

    A second group of studies identifies PIU as Compulsive Internet Use, involving loss of control in relation to certain Internet activities and compulsive use to access applications.

    “A second group of studies adopt the notion that the problem is not the Internet as a medium, but rather the different applications and activities facilitated by it (Ciarrochi et al., 2016;Meerkerk, Van Den Eijnden, & Garretsen, 2006;Sun et al., 2012;van Rooij, Schoenmakers, van de Eijnden, & van de Mheen, 2010;Van Rooij, Schoenmakers, Vermulst, Van Den Eijnden, & Van De Mheen, 2011).Therefore,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ciarrochi et al., 2016

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    • cites Meerkerk, Van Den Eijnden, & Garretsen, 2006

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    • cites Sun et al., 2012

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Four of the reviewed studies used all 20 items on Young's IAT.

    “Four of the reviewed studies used all 20 items on Young's scale (Cho et al., 2013;Dong et al., 2011;Mittal et al., 2013;Stavropoulos et al., 2015), one study used a version shortened to 10 items adapted for a Chinese population (Yu & Shek, 2013), and one study used an adapted version of the IAT that contained the same number of items and response options as the original version (King, Delfabbro,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cho et al., 2013

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    • cites Dong et al., 2011

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    • cites Mittal et al., 2013

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Two reviewed studies used a shortened 10-item version of the CIUS.

    “Four of the studies used the original version of this instrument (Meerkerk et al., 2006;Thorsteinsson & Davey, 2014;van den Eijnden et al., 2010;van Rooij et al., 2010) and two used a shortened 10-item version (Ciarrochi et al., 2016;van den Eijnden et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ciarrochi et al., 2016

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    • cites van den Eijnden et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    One reviewed study used an adapted version of the IAT that contained the same number of items and response options as the original version.

    “Four of the reviewed studies used all 20 items on Young's scale (Cho et al., 2013;Dong et al., 2011;Mittal et al., 2013;Stavropoulos et al., 2015), one study used a version shortened to 10 items adapted for a Chinese population (Yu & Shek, 2013), and one study used an adapted version of the IAT that contained the same number of items and response options as the original version (King, Delfabbro,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites King, Delfabbro, et al., 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Links between IU-PIU and anxiety, social anxiety, depression and general psychological distress have been examined mainly as predictors, and less as potential consequences of IU-PIU, across predominantly Asian populations and over periods ranging from one to seven years.

    “Specifically, the links between IU-PIU and anxiety, social anxiety, depression and general psychological distress have been examined mainly as predictors, and less as potential consequences of IU-PIU, across predominantly Asian populations (i.e.Korean, Singaporean) and over different periods of time ranging from one to seven years”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cho et al., 2013

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    • cites Gámez-Guadix, 2014

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    • cites Ko, Liu, et al., 2009

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The current trend in the longitudinal literature focuses on individual effects on IU-PIU and demonstrates a dearth of studies investigating contextual and Internet activity-related influences.

    “Findings highlight that the current trend in the longitudinal literature focuses on the individual effects on IU-PIU, and demonstrates the dearth of studies investigating contextual and Internet activity-related influences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 29 reviewed longitudinal studies are sufficiently comparable in their definitions and measures of IU/PIU to be synthesized into aggregate trends.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The IAT, CIUS and CIAS all apply Likert-scales.

    “Third, they all apply Likert-scales.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingcitation

    There have been contradictory findings considering the association between psychotic symptoms and PIU: one study suggested an increase in psychotic symptoms over two months related to significantly higher PIU, and a second study found no significant associations.

    “Finally, there have been contradictory findings considering the association between psychotic symptoms and PIU, with one study suggesting that an increase in psychotic symptoms over two-months related to significantly higher PIU (Mittal et al., 2013), and a second study”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Mittal et al., 2013

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    • cites Dong et al., 2011

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The influence of gender on IU-PIU levels was investigated by 12 studies, with only three not supporting gender-related IU-PIU differences.

    “The influence of gender, as a static (not-changeable, predisposing factor) on an individual's IU-PIU levels was investigated by 12 studies with only three of them not supporting gender-related IU-PIU differences (Gámez-Guadix, 2014;Gámez-Guadix et al., 2015;Jackson et al., 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gámez-Guadix, 2014

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    • cites Gámez-Guadix et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Jackson et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The 29 reviewed longitudinal studies are sufficiently comparable in their definitions and measures of IU/PIU to be synthesized into aggregate trends.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Three studies looked at substance use and IU amongst adolescents, with no predictive or protective relationships identified.

    “Finally, three studies looked at substance use and IU amongst adolescents, with no predictive or protective relationships identified”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gámez-Guadix et al., 2013, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sun et al., 2012

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The reviewed variables are distributed as 22 individual influences, 4 contextual influences, and 1 Internet activity-related variable examined longitudinally.

    “The vast majority of variables reviewed are classified as individual influences on IU-PIU (n = 22), fewer as contextual influences (n = 4) and only one Internet activity-related variable was found (n = 1) to have been examined longitudinally.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 29 reviewed longitudinal studies are sufficiently comparable in their definitions and measures of IU/PIU to be synthesized into aggregate trends.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Although the CIAS has good psychometric properties, it has not yet been adapted in English.

    “Although CIAS has good psychometric properties (Chen et al., 2015), it has not yet been adapted in English.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chen et al., 2015

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Four reviewed studies used the original version of the CIUS.

    “Four of the studies used the original version of this instrument (Meerkerk et al., 2006;Thorsteinsson & Davey, 2014;van den Eijnden et al., 2010;van Rooij et al., 2010) and two used a shortened 10-item version (Ciarrochi et al., 2016;van den Eijnden et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Meerkerk et al., 2006

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    • cites Thorsteinsson & Davey, 2014

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    • cites van den Eijnden et al., 2010

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Positive adolescent development and higher basic psychological needs satisfaction were associated with lower PIU.

    “In terms of protective factors of IU-PIU, positive adolescent development (Yu & Shek, 2013) and higher basic psychological needs satisfaction (Yu et al., 2015) were associated with lower PIU.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Yu & Shek, 2013

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    • cites Yu et al., 2015

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Less protective parenting, low family functioning, lower parental education and divorced or less positively related parental couples were found to be related to higher PIU.

    “Furthermore, less protective parenting (Chen et al., 2015), low family functioning (Ko et al., 2007), lower parental education and divorced or less positively related parental couples, were found to be related to higher PIU”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Chen et al., 2015

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    • cites Ko et al., 2007

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    • cites Willoughby, 2008

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Korean studies have found hostility to be the most significant predictor of PIU among male adolescents over a two-year period and to be predictive of PIU remission.

    “In line with this, Korean studies have found hostility to be the most significant predictor of PIU among male adolescents over a two-year period (Ko, Liu, et al., 2009) and to be predictive of PIU remission”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ko, Liu, et al., 2009

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    • cites Ko et al., 2007

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    Findingcitation

    Higher levels of self-control were found to act protectively for PIU, while more impulsive behaviours were supported to be a PIU risk.

    “In regards to self-control and impulsivity, higher levels of self-control were found to act protectively for PIU, while more impulsive behaviours were supported to be a PIU risk”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Haagsma et al., 2013

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Higher extroversion and neuroticism have been related to higher PIU behaviours over time.

    “Specifically, in regards to personality traits, higher extroversion and neuroticism have been related to higher PIU behaviours over time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Jackson et al., 2003

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    • cites Thorsteinsson & Davey, 2014

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Higher and lower self-esteem have been found to be a PIU protective and PIU risk factor, respectively, amongst Korean and Taiwanese adolescents.

    “Specifically, higher and lower self-esteem have been found to be a PIU protective and PIU risk factor, respectively, amongst Korean and Taiwanese adolescents”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hong et al., 2014

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    • cites Ko et al., 2007

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Lower support and social adjustment were predictors of PIU.

    “and the second found lower support and social adjustment to be predictors of PIU”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chen et al., 2015

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compulsive symptoms function mainly as harm-avoidant behaviours and are ego-dystonic, whereas PIU is primarily driven by seeking gratification and is ego-syntonic.

    “As argued by Stavropoulos, Gentile, and Motti-Stefanidi (2016), compulsive symptoms function mainly as harm-avoidant behaviours and are ego-dystonic, whereas PIU is primarily driven by seeking gratification and is ego-syntonic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stavropoulos, Gentile, and Motti-Stefanidi (2016)

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The methodological quality of the reviewed studies was evaluated, with specific attention to the reliability of IU and/or PIU measures.

    “The methodological quality of these studies was evaluated, with specific attention to the reliability of IU and/or PIU measures (see Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PIU has negative consequences that impact everyday functioning, interpersonal relationships and emotional well-being.

    “PIU comprises an important area of research as its negative consequences have been found to impact on everyday functioning, interpersonal relationships and emotional well-being (Akin, 2012;Anderson, 2001;Young & Rogers, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Akin, 2012

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    • cites Anderson, 2001

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    • cites Young & Rogers, 1998

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The Internet Addiction Model conceptualizes PIU as the result of the interplay between an individual's 'push' and 'pull' factors.

    “The IAM conceptualizes PIU as the result of the interplay between an individual's 'push' and 'pull' factors (Douglas et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Douglas et al., 2008

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The inconsistencies in terms and definitions for PIU appear to reflect variations in how the literature has emphasized its communalities with compulsive, addictive, and more generally problematic behaviours.

    “The inconsistencies considering the terms and the definitions suggested to describe PIU appear to reflect variations regarding the way literature has emphasized its communalities with compulsive, addictive, and more generally problematic behaviours.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The relationship between mental health and PIU appears to be bi-directional: poor mental health can be a strong precursor to PIU, and PIU can predict poor mental health.

    “Conclusively, the relationship between mental health and PIU appears to be bi-directional, as although poor mental health can be a strong precursor to PIU, studies have also found that PIU can predict poor mental health”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ciarrochi et al., 2016

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    • cites Dong et al., 2011

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    • cites Gentile et al., 2011

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These findings illustrate the differences between PIU and other forms of addictions, converging to the absence of cross-addictive behaviours between substance abuse and PIU.

    “These findings illustrate the differences between PIU and other forms of addictions, converging to the absence of cross-addictive behaviours (transformation of one addictive behaviour into another) between substance abuse and PIU in particular.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The higher life satisfaction of adolescent online gamers was attributed to the social value likely added due to being a member of an online gaming community.

    “This finding that was attributed to the social value likely added, due to being a member of an online gaming community”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kowert et al., 2015

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Higher propensity for anxiety and lack of emotional control that more neurotic individuals experience, combined with escaping through the Internet, have been suggested to explain their higher PIU levels.

    “Following this line of thought, the higher propensity for anxiety and the lack of emotional control that more neurotic individuals experience, combined with escaping through the Internet, have been suggested to explain their higher PIU levels”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jackson et al., 2003

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Students with higher perceived teacher autonomy support and positive psychological satisfaction were more likely to be motivated to engage in school, and less likely to develop PIU.

    “Specifically, students with higher perceived teacher autonomy support and positive psychological satisfaction were more likely to be motivated to engage in school, and less likely to develop PIU”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu et al., 2015

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These findings converge to the contribution of functional peer relationships as a protective PIU factor, indicating that IU may both promote and disadvantage socialization, depending on the characteristics of the user as well as his/her peer context.

    “These findings converge to the contribution of functional peer relationships as a protective PIU factor, indicating that IU may both promote and disadvantage socialization, depending on the characteristics of the user as well as his/her peer context.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
38 of 38

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 29 reviewed longitudinal studies are sufficiently comparable in their definitions and measures of IU/PIU to be synthesized into aggregate trends.

    “Despite methodological differences in construct measures, it is important to note that most of the studies displayed high reliability, regardless of which particular instrument was used (see Table 1 for reliability of instruments).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The development of behaviour that places an adolescent or emergent adult at the high end of the IU-PIU continuum is influenced by all three areas: individual, contextual and Internet-related factors.

    “Provided that the development of behaviour, that places an adolescent/emergent adult at the high end of the IU-PIU continuum is influenced by all three of these areas, more balanced emphasis across individual, contextual and Internet-related factors needs to be adopted by future longitudinal research”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The term 'Internet addiction' or 'smartphone addiction' is not used consistently in the literature.

    “The term ‘Internet addiction’ or ‘smartphone addiction’ is not used consistently in the literature. A review shows the use of different expressions; there is, for instance, ‘digital addiction’ [25], ‘problematic Internet use’ [26], or ‘Internet-use disorder’ [27].”

    From Problematic Use of the Internet and Smartphones in University Students: 2006–2017 (2018) · cites this paper as [26]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Gender significance rate conflicts with the stated study count

    Minor

    The text says 12 studies investigated gender and three did not support gender-related differences. That leaves nine studies, or 75%, rather than the 83.3% reported in Table 6.

  • Server-logged measure contradicts the self-report characterization

    Minor

    The measurement section describes the measures as self-reports, with parental reporting as the sole exception. Table 1 also identifies a server-logged measure, which is not a self-report.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. Bronfenbrenner U., 2006, Handbook of child psychology, sixth edition – Volume 1: Theoretical models of human development, 793
  2. Hall A. S., 2001, Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 23, 312
  3. Pew Research Center, 2012, Parents, teens and online privacy: Main report
  4. Pew Research Center, 2014, Internet use over time
  5. Taplin S., 2005, Methodological design issues in longitudinal studies of children and young people in out-of-home care: Literature review

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Anderson, E. L., Steen, E., & Stavropoulos, V.
Affiliations
  • Federation University (AU)
  • University of South Australia (AU)
Corresponding author
Stavropoulos, Vasileios
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Adolescence and Youth
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2016-10-10
Volume
22
Issue
4
Pages
430-454
ISSN
  • 0267-3843 (ISSN-L)
  • 2164-4527
DOI
10.1080/02673843.2016.1227716
OpenAlex
W2530358506
Semantic Scholar
08d97540631c1e1ce25e6b1aa2aeec524e7cd1fa
Cited by
722
References
59
Citations by year
2026: 60 · 2025: 69 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 88 · 2022: 91 · 2021: 87 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 63 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 2 · 2012: 1
FWCI
15.43
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • International Journal of Adolescence and Youth (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Victoria University Research Repository (Victoria University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • UniSA Research Outputs Repository (University of South Australia) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
  • Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
Keywords
internet use, problematic internet use, adolescents, young adults, personal factors, contextual factors, scientific terminology, measurement instruments

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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