Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations.

Shrout, Patrick E.; Bolger, Niall

doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.4.422

Cited by 11,335Advanced Causal Inference TechniquesStatistical Methods and Bayesian InferencePsychometric Methodologies and Testing

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 66 of the 66 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations.

Shrout, Patrick E., Bolger, Niall·2002·Psychological Methods

DOI 10.1037/1082-989x.7.4.422

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Abstract

Mediation is said to occur when a causal effect of some variable X on an outcome Y is explained by some intervening variable M. The authors recommend that with small to moderate samples, bootstrap methods (B. Efron & R. Tibshirani, 1993) be used to assess mediation. Bootstrap tests are powerful because they detect that the sampling distribution of the mediated effect is skewed away from 0. They argue that R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny's (1986) recommendation of first testing the X --> Y association for statistical significance should not be a requirement when there is a priori belief that the effect size is small or suppression is a possibility. Empirical examples and computer setups for bootstrap analyses are provided.

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Indirect effects used bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals based on 10,000 resamples.
“The indirect effect was estimated with bias-corrected bootstrapped confidence intervals.38,39 Confidence intervals were estimated from 10,000 bootstrap samples.”
From Psychological flexibility, distress, and coping in ovarian cancer survivors. (2026) · cites this paper as [39]
Because the antecedent variable is experimental in a randomized study, its causal relation to mediator and outcome can be interpreted unambiguously.
“Since the antecedent variable is an experimental variable in a randomized study, its causal relation to the mediator and the outcome variable can be interpreted unambiguously102,103.”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [103]
The Sobel test for measuring the magnitude of mediating effects assumes normality of the sample distribution when verifying significance.
“In addition, the Sobel test for measuring the magnitude of mediating effects assumes the normality of the sample distribution when verifying the significance [157,158].”
From A Study on the Effect of Change Management on Organizational Innovation: Focusing on the Mediating Effect of Members’ Innovative Behavior (2021) · cites this paper as [158]
SEM analysis has the advantage of using confidence intervals through free and verifiable bootstrapping under normal distribution assumptions.
“On the other hand, SEM analysis has the advantage of using confidence intervals through free and verifiable bootstrapping under normal distribution assumptions [158].”
From A Study on the Effect of Change Management on Organizational Innovation: Focusing on the Mediating Effect of Members’ Innovative Behavior (2021) · cites this paper as [158]
Mediation analyses were conducted via bootstrapping with 5000 bootstrapped samples and a 95% confidence interval for each indirect effect, in line with existing recommendations.
“In line with existing recommendations, mediation analyses were conducted via bootstrapping, allowing to estimate the confidence intervals of the indirect effects [77]. 5000 bootstrapped samples were used with a 95% confidence interval for each indirect effect.”
From “It’s not you, it’s me”: identity disturbance as the main contributor to interpersonal problems in pathological narcissism (2023) · cites this paper as [77]

Bootstrap mediation analyses can be applied when the sample size is small or moderate (e.g., n = 20-60).
“Bootstrap mediation analyses can be applied when the sample size is small or moderate (e.g., n = 20–60) [79, 80].”
From Improving symptom management for survivors of young adult cancer: rationale and study protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
Bootstrapping was used to test the mediation effect.
“As previous research indicated that bootstrapping provides more accurate estimates of the indirect effect of standard errors compare to other approaches (Shrout & Bolger, 2002), bootstrapping was used to test the mediation effect in the current study.”
From Mindfulness and attachment security in romantic relationships: The role of emotion regulation as a mediator. (2025) · cites this paper as Shrout & Bolger, 2002
A statistically significant total effect of X on Y is not necessary for mediation to occur and mediation analysis does not require evidence of a total effect prior to investigating direct and indirect effects.
“Note that a statistically significant total effect of X on Y is not necessary for mediation to occur and that mediation analysis does not require evidence of a total effect prior to investigating direct and indirect effects [63–66].”
From Acceptance as a Mediator for Change in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Persons with Chronic Pain? (2016) · cites this paper as [65]
Distributed brain networks combine bottom-up attention with top-down control and produce suitable responses to salient stimuli, thereby supporting behavioral regulation and sound executive function.
“Together these distributed brain networks integrate bottom-up attention with top-down control and generate appropriate behavioral responses to salient stimuli, thereby contributing to behavioral regulation and sound executive function (51–57).”
From Impact of Childhood Trauma on Executive Function in Adolescence—Mediating Functional Brain Networks and Prediction of High-Risk Drinking (2020) · cites this paper as [52]
Bootstrapping methods can be extended to designs involving multiple mediation.
“To address this problem, Shrout and Bolger (2002) argued that bootstrapping methods can be extended to designs involving multiple mediation.”
From Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models (2008) · cites this paper as Shrout & Bolger, 2002

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“According to Shrout and Bolger (2002), if the bias-corrected 95% CIs around the estimates for the indirect effects do not contain 0, then it is possible to conclude that the indirect effects are statistically significant at the level of p .05.”
BackgroundMethod
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Authors: Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N.
Affiliations: New York University (US)
ORCID: Shrout, Patrick E.
Bolger, Niall
Venue: Psychological Methods
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002
Volume: 7
Issue: 4
Pages: 422-445
ISSN: 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
1939-1463
DOI: 10.1037/1082-989x.7.4.422
OpenAlex: W2104057213
Cited by: 11,335
References: 66
Citations by year: 2026: 347 · 2025: 533 · 2024: 574 · 2023: 547 · 2022: 708 · 2021: 743 · 2020: 687 · 2019: 685 · 2018: 627 · 2017: 643 · 2016: 657 · 2015: 658 · 2014: 679 · 2013: 658 · 2012: 598
FWCI: 44.55
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01-MH60366, MH60366, R01MH060366)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Keywords: mediation analysis, bootstrapping, indirect effects, mediators, suppression effect, small sample inference, experimental study, statistical significance testing
MeSH terms: Humans, Models, Psychological, Psychology, Stress, Psychological, Guidelines as Topic

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