High-stakes testing in employment, credentialing, and higher education: Prospects in a post-affirmative-action world.
Abstract
Cognitively loaded tests of knowledge, skill, and ability often contribute to decisions regarding education, jobs, licensure, or certification. Users of such tests often face difficult choices when trying to optimize both the performance and ethnic diversity of chosen individuals. The authors describe the nature of this quandary, review research on different strategies to address it, and recommend using selection materials that assess the full range of relevant attributes using a format that minimizes verbal content as much as is consistent with the outcome one is trying to achieve. They also recommend the use of test preparation, face-valid assessments, and the consideration of relevant job or life experiences. Regardless of the strategy adopted, it is unreasonable to expect that one can maximize both the performance and ethnic diversity of selected individuals.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cites
THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND JOB PERFORMANCE: A META‐ANALYSIS
BARRICK, M. R., & MOUNT, M. K. (1991) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x · Cited by 8,689 · see citing works
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 8,181 · see citing works
A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance
Steele, C. M. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.6.613 · Cited by 6,770 · see citing works
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1998) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.124.2.262 · Cited by 4,180 · see citing works
Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns.
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R. J., et al. (1996) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77 · Cited by 2,913 · see citing works
International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Cooper, C. L., & Robertson, I. T. (2003) · doi:10.1002/0470013311.oth1 · Cited by 2,775 · see citing works
Validity and utility of alternative predictors of job performance.
Hunter, J. E., & Hunter, R. F. (1984) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.96.1.72 · Cited by 2,107 · see citing works
Differential Item Functioning.
Gudgeon, A. C., Holland, P. W., & Wainer, H. (1994) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.2307/2348590 · Cited by 2,103 · see citing works
(1980) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 1,935 · see citing works
The five factor model of personality and job performance in the European Community.
Salgado, J. F. (1997) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.1.30 · Cited by 1,582 · see citing works
International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1987
Sandelands, L., Cooper, C. L., & Robertson, I. T. (1988) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/258385 · Cited by 1,345 · see citing works
Öneş, D. S., Viswesvaran, C., & Schmidt, F. L. (1993) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.4.679 · Cited by 1,082 · see citing works
International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology 2005
Hodgkinson, G. P., & Ford, J. K. (2005) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0470029307 · Cited by 741 · see citing works
An alternative selection procedure: The low-fidelity simulation.
Motowidlo, S., Dunnette, M. D., & Carter, G. (1990) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.75.6.640 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Schmitt, N., Gooding, R. Z., Noe, R. A., & Kirsch, M. P. (1984) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1984.tb00519.x · Cited by 554 · see citing works
Self-citationPersonality as a Predictor of College Performance
Wolfe, R. N., & Johnson, S. D. (1995) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164495055002002 · Cited by 484 · see citing works
Why is there no study of cultural equivalence in standardized cognitive ability testing
Helms, J. E. (1992) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.9.1083 · Cited by 431 · see citing works
Assessment Centers and Managerial Performance
(1982) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2009-0-03049-9 · Cited by 415 · see citing works
Chan, D. K., & Schmitt, N. (1997) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.1.143 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Self-citationHandbook of methods for detecting test bias
Berk, R. A. (1982) · Johns Hopkins University Press eBooks · Cited by 367 · see citing works
Employment testing: Old theories and new research findings.
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1981) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.36.10.1128 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management
(2008) · Research in personnel and human resources management · doi:10.1016/s0742-7301(08)27013-1 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Ability Testing: Uses, Consequences, and Controversies
Wigdor, A. K. (1982) · Educational Measurement Issues and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.1982.tb00659.x · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Quality Control in the Development and Use of Performance Assessments
Dunbar, S. B., Koretz, D. M., & Hoover, H. D. (1991) · Applied Measurement in Education · doi:10.1207/s15324818ame0404_3 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Chan, D., Schmitt, N., DeShon, R. P., Clause, C. S., & Delbridge, K. (1997) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.2.300 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Self-citationRace, Social Class, and Individual Differences in I.Q.
D., C. P., & Scarr, S. W. (1982) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422150 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Educational Assessment: Expanded Expectations and Challenges
Linn, R. L. (1993) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737015001001 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Within-group norming and other forms of score adjustment in preemployment testing.
Sackett, P. R., & Wilk, S. L. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.49.11.929 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Self-citationBobko, P., Roth, P. L., & Potosky, D. (1999) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00172.x · Cited by 225 · see citing works
VIDEO‐BASED SITUATIONAL TESTING
Weekley, J. A., & Jones, C. (1997) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1997.tb00899.x · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Adverse impact and predictive efficiency of various predictor combinations.
Schmitt, N., Rogers, W., Chan, D. K., Sheppard, L. A., & Jennings, D. (1997) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.5.719 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Self-citationTHE EFFECTS OF FORMING MULTI‐PREDICTOR COMPOSITES ON GROUP DIFFERENCES AND ADVERSE IMPACT
Sackett, P. R., & Ellingson, J. E. (1997) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1997.tb00711.x · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Self-citationTime and method in coaching for the SAT.
Messick, S., & Jungeblut, A. (1981) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.89.2.191 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Understanding pretest and posttest reactions to cognitive ability and personality tests.
Chan, D. K., Schmitt, N., Sacco, J. M., & DeShon, R. P. (1998) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.471 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Self-citationThe problem of group differences in ability test scores in employment selection
Schmidt, F. L. (1988) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/0001-8791(88)90040-1 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Performance Assessment for the Workplace
National Research Council (1991) · National Academies Press eBooks · doi:10.17226/1862 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Pulakos, E. D., & Schmitt, N. (1996) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup0903_4 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Self-citationREALISTIC WORK SAMPLE TESTS: A REVIEW
Asher, J. J., & SCIARRINO, J. A. (1974) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1974.tb01173.x · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Fairness in Employment Testing
Hartigan, J. A., & Wigdor, A. K. (1989) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2740906 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
APPLICANT WITHDRAWAL: THE ROLE OF TEST‐TAKING ATTITUDES AND RACIAL DIFFERENCES
Schmit, M. J., & Ryan, A. M. (1997) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1997.tb01485.x · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Ford, J. K., Kraiger, K., & Schechtman, S. L. (1986) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.99.3.330 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Cole, N. S. (1981) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.36.10.1067 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Differential Item Functioning for Minority Examinees on the SAT
Sehmitt, A. P., & Dorans, N. J. (1990) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1990.tb00735.x · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Evaluating the Effect of Coaching on SAT Scores: A Meta-Analysis
DerSimonian, R., & Laird, N. (1983) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.53.1.n06j5h5356217648 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Equity Implications Based on the Conceptions of Science Achievement in Major Reform Documents
Lee, O. (1999) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.2307/1170645 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Work sample tests: Validity, adverse impact and applicant reaction
Robertson, I. T., & Kandola, R. S. (1982) · Journal of Occupational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.1982.tb00091.x · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Effects of Coaching Programs on Achievement Test Performance
Bangert‐Drowns, R. L., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. C. (1983) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.2307/1170221 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Portfolios in Large‐scale Assessment: Difficult But Not Impossible
LeMahieu, P. G., Gitomer, D. H., & Eresh, J. A. T. (1995) · Educational Measurement Issues and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.1995.tb00863.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
JOB SAMPLE VS. PAPER‐AND‐PENCIL TRADES AND TECHNICAL TESTS: ADVERSE IMPACT AND EXAMINEE ATTITUDES1
Schmidt, F. L., GREENTHAL, A. L., Hunter, J. E., et al. (1977) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1977.tb02088.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
A COMPARISON OF SEVERAL METHODS OF ASSESSING ITEM BIAS
Ironson, G. H., & Subkoviak, M. J. (1979) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1979.tb00103.x · Cited by 93 · see citing works
A META‐ANALYSIS OF THE VALIDITY OF METHODS FOR RATING TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE IN PERSONNEL SELECTION
McDaniel, M. A., Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1988) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1988.tb02386.x · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Using personality testing to reduce adverse impact: A cautionary note.
Ryan, A. M., Ployhart, R. E., & Friedel, L. (1998) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.2.298 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Hough, L. M. (1984) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.1.135 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
GOLDSTEIN, H. W., YUSKO, K. P., BRAVERMAN, E. P., SMITH, D. B., & CHUNG, B. (1998) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1998.tb00729.x · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Science assessment in the service of reform
(1992) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.29-5812 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Scheuneman, J. D., & Gerritz, K. (1990) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1990.tb00737.x · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Hattrup, K., Rock, J., & Scalia, C. (1997) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.5.656 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Miller-Jones, D. (1989) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.44.2.360 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Effects of self-study for coachable test item types.
Powers, D. E., & Swinton, S. S. (1984) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.76.2.266 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Differential Effects of Question Formats in Math Assessment on Metacognition and Affect
O’Neil, H. F., & Brown, R. S. (1998) · Applied Measurement in Education · doi:10.1207/s15324818ame1104_3 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Selection utility in the occupation of U.S. park ranger for three modes of test use.
Schmidt, F. L., Mack, M. J., & Hunter, J. E. (1984) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-9010.69.3.490 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
TEST PREPARATION PROGRAMS IN SELECTION CONTEXTS: SELF‐SELECTION AND PROGRAM EFFECTIVENESS
Ryan, A. M., Ployhart, R. E., Greguras, G. J., & Schmit, M. J. (1998) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1998.tb00253.x · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Hakel, M. D. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203774311 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The Cost of Science Performance Assessments in Large-Scale Testing Programs
Stecher, B. M., & Klein, S. P. (1997) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737019001001 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
An Experimental, Exploratory Study of Causes of Bias in Test Items
Seheuneman, J. D. (1987) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1987.tb00267.x · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Coaching and practice effects in personnel selection
Sackett, P. R., Burris, L. R., & Ryan, A. M. (1989) · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationSupovitz, J. A., & Brennan, R. T. (1997) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.67.3.66v546274672g154 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Traditional tests and job simulations: Minority and majority performance and test validities.
Schmitt, N., & Mills, A. E. (2001) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-9010.86.3.451 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationPredicting black and white differential item functioning in verbal analogy performance
Freedle, R. O., & Kostin, I. W. (1997) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90058-1 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Gender and Racial/Ethnic Differences on Performance Assessments in Science
Klein, S. P., Jovanović, J., Stecher, B. M., et al. (1997) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.2307/1164204 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Rea, P. W., Applebee, A. N., Langer, J. A., et al. (1991) · College Composition and Communication · doi:10.2307/357554 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Racial and ethnic differences in intelligence in the United States on the Differential Ability Scale
Lynn, R. (1996) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00158-1 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
DeShon, R. P., Smith, M. R., Chan, D., & Schmitt, N. (1998) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-9010.83.3.438 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationUnintended Consequences of Perfiormance Assessment: Issues of Bias and Fairness
Bond, L. (1995) · Educational Measurement Issues and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3992.1995.tb00885.x · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Corte, W. D. (1999) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.84.5.695 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Scheuneman, J. D., & Grima, A. (1997) · Applied Measurement in Education · doi:10.1207/s15324818ame1004_1 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Issues of validity in empirical tests of stereotype threat theory.
Whaley, A. L. (1998) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.53.6.679 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Racial Minorities and Writing Skills Assessment in the California State University and Colleges
White, E. M., & Thomas, L. L. (1981) · College English · doi:10.2307/377241 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
EFFECT OF INCREASED TEST‐TAKING TIME ON TEST SCORES BY ETHNIC GROUP, YEARS OUT OF SCHOOL, AND SEX
Wild, C. L., Durso, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1982) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1982.tb00111.x · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Analyzing the long-term performance of minority and nonminority students: A tale of two studies
Wilson, K. M. (1981) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/bf00973514 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Relationship between culture and responses to biodata employment items.
Whitney, D. J., & Schmitt, N. (1997) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-9010.82.1.113 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationTest Policy and Test Performance: Education, Language, and Culture
Gifford, B. R. (1989) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2500-7 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Students React to Portfolio Assessment.
Dutt-Donter, K., & Gilman, D. A. (1998) · Contemporary education · Cited by 30 · see citing works
AN EVALUATION OF THREE “ALTERNATIVE” SELECTION PROCEDURES1
Hough, L. M., Keyes, M. A., & Dunnette, M. D. (1983) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1983.tb01436.x · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Medley, D. M., & Quirk, T. J. (1974) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1974.tb00995.x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Freedle, R. O., & Kostin, I. W. (1990) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1990.tb00752.x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
O’Connor, M. C. (1989) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2500-7_8 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
DeShon, R. P., Smith, M. R., Chan, D., & Schmitt, N. (1998) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.438 · Cited by 25
Self-citationEquity and Excellence in Educational Testing and Assessment
Nettles, M. T., & Nettles, A. L. (1995) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-0633-7 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Powers, D. E., & Swinton, S. S. (1982) · ETS Research Report Series · doi:10.1002/j.2333-8504.1982.tb01303.x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
西村, 裕. (2000) · アメリカ法 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Who Benefits Most From Preparing for a “Coachable” Admissions Test?
Powers, D. E. (1987) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1987.tb00278.x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Efficient Synthesis of 2′-deoxy-2′-α-C-substituted Nucleosides
Schmit, C. (1994) · Synlett · doi:10.1055/s-1994-22809 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Fairness in Employment Testing
Humphreys, L. D. (1989) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.245.4913.14-c · Cited by 18 · see citing works
A Simulation Study of Item Bias Using a Two-Parameter Item Response Model
McCauley, C. D., & Mendoza, J. L. (1985) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662168500900408 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Review of International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology 1989.
Zedeck, S. (1990) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/028639 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Evans, F. R., & Reilly, R. R. (1973) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/bf00991339 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Schmeiser, C. B., & Ferguson, R. L. (1978) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1978.tb00068.x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Performance assessment in education and professional certification: Lessons for personnel selection?
Sackett, P. R. (1998) · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationKoenig, J. A., & Leger, K. F. (1997) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00001888-199710001-00034 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Enhancing Minority College Students' Performance on Educational Tests
Frierson, H. T. (1986) · The Journal of Negro Education · doi:10.2307/2294631 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
An interim report on the MCAT Essay Pilot Project
Koenig, J. A., & Mitchell, K. J. (1988) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00001888-198801000-00005 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Some Prerequisites for the Establishment of Equitable, Inclusive Multicultural Assessment Systems
Neill, M. (1995) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-0633-7_5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The impact of courts on teacher competence testing
D’Costa, A. G. (1993) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405849309543583 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Using Test Scores for Decision Making
Mehrens, W. A. (1989) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2500-7_5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Equity Issues in Teacher Assessment
Dwyer, C. A., & Ramsey, P. A. (1995) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-0633-7_13 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Kier, F. J., & Davenport, D. S. (1997) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037//0735-7028.28.5.486 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Differential performance on a direct measure of writing skills for Black and White college freshmen.
Welch, C. J., Doolittle, A. E., & McLarty, J. R. (1989) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e417942004-001 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Foreword: The Making of a Turning Point. Metro and Adarand
Mishkin, P. J. (1996) · California Law Review · doi:10.2307/3480985 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Making of a Turning Point--Metro and Adarand
Mishkin, P. J. (1996) · bepress Legal Repository · doi:10.15779/z38714g · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Koenig, J. A., & Leger, K. F. (1997) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00001888-199710000-00057 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Assessment Centers and the Courts
Thornton, G. C., & Byham, W. C. (1982) · Assessment Centers and Managerial Performance · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-690620-2.50015-5
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 11
- Harmon, 1991, Fairness in testing: Are science education assessments biased?, 31
- Jaeger, 1996a, Conclusions on the technical measurement quality of the 1995-1996 operational version of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards' Early Childhood Generalist Assessment.
- Jaeger, 1996b, Conclusions on the technical measurement quality of the 1995-1996 operational version of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards' Middle Childhood Generalist Assessment.
- 10.1037/0735-7028.28.5.486 · DOI
- Schmidt, 1979, The behavioral consistency method of unassembled examining (TM-79-21).
- 10.1037/0021-9010.69.3.490 · DOI
- Schmitt, 1996, Subgroup differences associated with different measures of some job-relevant constructs., Vol. 11, 115
- Steele, 1999, Thin ice: "Stereotype threat" and Black college students., Atlantic Monthly, 284, 44
- Stokes, 1994, Biodata handbook.
- 10.1037/0003-066X.53.6.679 · DOI
- 10.1037/0021-9010.82.1.113 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Sources of Four Commonly Reported Cutoff Criteria: What Did They Really Say?
Lance, C. E., Butts, M. M., & Michels, L. C. (2006) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428105284919 · Cited by 2,053 · see citing works
Nguyen, H.-H. D., & Ryan, A. M. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012702 · Cited by 845 · see citing works
Study Habits, Skills, and Attitudes: The Third Pillar Supporting Collegiate Academic Performance
Credé, M., & Kuncel, N. R. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00089.x · Cited by 780 · see citing works
Sackett, P. R., Hardison, C. M., & Cullen, M. J. (2004) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.7 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Self-citationSackett, P. R., Borneman, M. J., & Connelly, B. S. (2008) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.63.4.215 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Self-citationGROUP DIFFERENCES IN PERSONALITY: META‐ANALYSES COMPARING FIVE U.S. RACIAL GROUPS
FOLDES, H. J., DUEHR, E. E., & ONES, D. S. (2008) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.00123.x · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Personality and intelligence: A meta-analysis.
Anglim, J., Dunlop, P. D., Wee, S., Horwood, S., Wood, J. K., & Marty, A. (2022) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000373 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Intelligence: Foundations and issues in assessment
Gottfredson, L., & Saklofske, D. H. (2009) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/a0016641 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Is stereotype threat a useful construct for organizational psychology research and practice?
Kalokerinos, E. K., von Hippel, C., & Zacher, H. (2014) · Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/iops.12167 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Differential Prediction and the Use of Multiple Predictors: The Omitted Variables Problem.
Sackett, P. R., Laczo, R. M., & Lippe, Z. P. (2003) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.6.1046 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationWhat if the hereditarian hypothesis is true?
Gottfredson, L. S. (2005) · Psychology, Public Policy, and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.311 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Nguyen, H.-H. D., O'Neal, A., & Ryan, A. M. (2003) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1603_5 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
McKay, P. F., Doverspike, D., Bowen-Hilton, D., & McKay, Q. D. (2003) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1023/a:1025062703113 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Wanted: More race realism, less moralistic fallacy.
Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2005) · Psychology, Public Policy, and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.328 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
- Authors
- Sackett, P. R., Schmitt, N., Ellingson, J. E., & Kabin, M. B.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2001-04
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 302-318
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2049089006
- Semantic Scholar
- d31c55930d6172f3c327af3bc278fd39584b9bfe
- Cited by
- 387
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 30
- FWCI
- 34.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Medical Education and Admissions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- high-stakes testing, affirmative action, ethnic diversity, selection decisions, employment testing, credentialing, university admission, test format, verbal content, exam preparation, face validity, work experience
- MeSH terms
- Aptitude Tests, Credentialing, Education, Employment, Humans, Cultural Diversity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review