Person versus process praise and criticism: Implications for contingent self-worth and coping.

“Adults could also be cognizant of children’s emotional vulnerability to criticism, making them more hesitant to critique children’s reviews (M. L. Kamins and Dweck 1999).”

“More process-oriented than person-oriented feedback to the students might ease their concerns (Kamins & Dweck, 1999) and facilitate a replacement of possible self-validation goals with learning goals.”

“, 2004; Skinner and Belmont, 1993), who provide process praise (Kamins and Dweck, 1999) and contingent feedback (Hattie and Timperley, 2007), strengthen students’ effort and ability-related competence beliefs.”

“Consistent with the many studies conducted with children (Corpus & Lepper, 2007; Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998), the superior effects of process praise, compared to person praise, appeared to continue along the developmental trajectory into young adulthood.”

“Consistent with this claim, children aged 5–6 years displayed helpless-ness after failure when given cues that success depends on ability not effort 29 , and children aged 5–11 years became less willing to persist after failing a task 43 .”

“While these reactions can focus on the child ’ s behavior, such as effort (see process feedback; Kamins & Dweck, 1999, p. 835), conditional negative regard explicitly focuses on the characteristics of the child (see person feedback; Kamins & Dweck, 1999, p. 835).”

“Later, Kamins and Dweck (1999) extended the concept to kindergarten children.”

“Dimensionalität der PCR-D.”

“Moreover, just as is the case for individual criticism, this research suggests that responses to praise can vary considerably depending on the implied causes of praiseworthy behaviour (e.g., Cimpian et al., 2007; Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“The literature suggests that just praising children is not in itself a positive factor, and in many learning contexts can negatively affect children’s learning dispositions (Kamins and Dweck 1999; Dweck 2000).”

“…self-esteem—how positively they feel about themselves—may be a substrate or mechanism that helps students deal with educational failures, take educational risks in learning new things, and overcome challenges in school (Cvencek et al., 2018; Cvencek & Meltzoff, 2015; see also Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“The fi rst practice is referred to as person praise and is shown to be a practice that supports the development of the fi xed mindset (Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“With respect to overparenting, research shows that unconditional praise, encouragement, and protection from failure do not mitigate narcissistic behaviors (Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“Feedback offered early with an instructive intent empowers students to attain their achievement goals and persist when presented with optimally challenging tasks in the future (Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Lane, Menzies, Bruhn, & Crnobori, 2011).”

“…perceived as related to inherent ability (i.e., intelligence or trait), children display a high number of helpless behaviors (Cimpian, Arce, Markman, & Dweck, 2007; Diener & Dweck, 1980; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Fincham & Cain, 1986; Hokoda & Fincham, 1995; Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Smiley et al., 2016).”

“In general, it is found that person feedback leads to a greater belief in stable traits in contrast to process feedback (Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“…those who receive process praise focusing on feedback for effort and strategies used to overcome a learning struggle are more likely to endorse a growth mindset (Brummelman et al., 2014; Cimpian, Arce, Markman, & Dweck, 2007; Haimovitz & Corpus, 2011; Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998).”

“It has also been shown that parents’ and teachers’ praise and criticism shapes children’s mindsets (Cimpian et al., 2007; Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998).”

“In this regard, there is evidence that praises in person terms (e.g., “You are a clever boy”) can undermine motivation and affect in future performance compared with praises that focus on the person’s effort or strategies (e.g., “You worked hard”; Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“This is crucial for children’s learning because without it the assessee does not have guidance about how to improve a piece of work (Kamins and Dweck 1999; Black et al. 2003).”

“…of efficacy and optimism following early failure (I can succeed if I try harder), thereby creating the very type of early remedial focus that may lead to the development of effective remedial attribution responses to later possible self-failure (Brummelman et al., 2013; Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“Self-evaluation in hypothetical achievement situations was assessed by using a procedure developed for this age group by Heyman and colleagues (1992) and employed successfully with 4- and 5-year-olds in several studies (e.g., Cimpian et al., 2007; Cutting & Dunn, 2002; Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“Laboratory and retrospective questionnaire studies have demonstrated that children who receive this kind of feedback are more likely to embrace challenges and exhibit higher self-eval - uation (Kamins & Dweck, 1999 ; Zentall & Morris, 2010).”

“…verbal rewards can heighten self-focused attention, contingent self-worth, and fixed beliefs about intelligence, leading to feelings of helplessness when individuals encounter setbacks or difficulties (Baumeister et al., 1990; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998).”

“This finding, in particular, does not appear to be entirely consistent with the broader IST literature, linking improvement-oriented feedback to incremental theories [19, 47, 59, 88, 100] and the tendency to make positive judgments [i.e., 68], in consequence.”

“The results of Mueller and Dweck (1998) and others (e.g., Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Robins & Pals, 2002) suggest that praising and criticizing ability is ineffective, but that focusing on effort can promote resilience.”

“…2007), (2) provides specific information about the use of strategies in a task (Brinko, 1993), (3) emphasizes and praises cognitive processes rather than the learner personally (Brinko, 1993; Kamins & Dweck, 1999), and (4) emphasizes learning as compared to performance goals (Heyman & Dweck, 1992).”

“Prior studies have suggested that CSW develops in a particular domain when a caregiver communicates that being successful in that domain deserves awards and acceptance (i.e., feedback on abilities rather than efforts), whereas failure is punishable (Crocker & Knight, 2005; Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“For example, Kamins and Dweck (1999) found that a teacher’s response to failure on a task could promote either the entity or incremental theory among kindergartners.”

“The item addressing the caregiver’s attitude towards the importance of praise was “Praising child”; it had four response options: (1) Not at all important, (2) Of minor importance, (3) Fairly important, and (4) Very important.”

“Crucially, a long tradition of research has consistently found that implicit self-theories arise from, and are related to, ability and effort-focused praise (e.g., [56,66,80]).”

“Among children between the ages of 4 and 7 years, effort praise without strategy praise can foster beliefs that applying effort can improve abilities (Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Morris & Zentall, 2014).”

“…process-related feedback (e.g., “you worked hard”), receiving personal feedback (e.g., “you are smart”) following success, when children’s positive performance is attributed to their personal traits, could foster resistance to subsequent mistakes (Mueller and Dweck, 1998; Kamins and Dweck, 1999).”

“Earlier research has demonstrated the importance of adults’ emphasizing effort and learning versus intelligence and school grades on the formation of children’s own perceptions of malleability (e.g., Kamins and Dweck 1999; Mueller and Dweck 1998).”

“helpless-oriented manner ( Kamins & Dweck, 1999 ).”

“Praise may also diminish motivation by increasing pressure to perform (Baumeister al., 1990; Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“…cultures have a harder time attributing kindness to praise (Bell & Youmans, 2006), and students from Western or Romance-language cultures are more likely to feel good about their abilities as writers when teachers praise their work (Dweck, 2006; Hyland & Hyland, 2001; Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“Criticism is defined as negative evaluative feedback received from other people in social interactions [1, 2].”

“…a learning setback may reflect a self-protective measure to shift away from abilities that are perceived as lacking thus helping the child to preserve a positive self-image (Cimpian et al., 2007; Corpus & Lepper, 2007; Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998; Zentall & Morris, 2010, 2012).”

“Placing importance on the process of achieving a task, rather than simply on whether one was successful or not, has been well-documented as being beneficial for protecting one’s sense of self-worth and improving ability in one’s learning (Johnstone, 2012; Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“Among 5-to 6-year-olds, Kamins and Dweck (1999) found that person praise or criticism (e.g., “You’re really good at this”) compared to process praise or criticism (e.g., “You found a good way to do it, can you think of other ways that might work?”) led to greater beliefs in stable traits…”

“For instance, it was found that adult praise for effort or intelligence promotes children’s mastery-orientation or performance- orientation respectively (Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998), which might, in turn, have an impact on children’s subsequent performance (Natale et al., 2009).”

“In other words, praise needs to separate the action or process from the person or product (Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“Process-focused feedback evaluates strategies or effort (Henderlong & Lepper, 2002; Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“…on “praise” suggest that a parent’s constructive verbal feedback is related to a child’s achievement incentive in the early stage of development (Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Kelly et al., 2000); furthermore, a high frequency of praise is related to high self-esteem in the child (Felson &…”

“Excessively favorable self-assessments can intensify concerns with self-evaluations (Dweck, 2002; 2006; Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998), leading to engagement in self-defeating practices (e.g., self-handicapping behaviors) for the sake of protecting a threatened self-image.”

“Kamins and Dweck ( 1999) also noted that encouraging a growth mindset can increase self-confidence, particularly after setbacks.”

“This text feedback was developed using guidelines for teacher praise and criticism from literature [4], [24].”

“Academic coping is behaviors, strategies, or emotions used to deal with an event, such as a response to negative events or stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004; Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Lazarus & Folkman, 1987).”

“…か，能力・資質をほめるかなど，ほめ方によって子ど もの受け止め方とその後の行動は変わり（Dweck, 2000; Henderlong & Lepper, 2002; Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998），同じほめ言葉でも，自尊心の高低などの 個人内要因によって子どもの受け止め方は異なる （Brummelman et al., 2014）。国内の研究からも，ほめ方だ けでなく，ほめられる状況（青木, 2009, 2012）や個人の 過去のほめられた経験（高崎, 2018）などの種々の要因が…”

“On a similar issue, Kamins and Dweck (1999) state that person praise, even when positive, may lead to vulnerability in children.”

“Criticism, defined as negative evaluative feedback received from other people in social interactions [1-2] is often construed as unpleasant but is common, and often unavoidable, in social interactions of everyday life.”

“The framing of learning activities and the feedback children receive from teachers influences their willingness to pursue challenging options and persevere when tasks become challenging (Harter, 1978; Kamins & Dweck, 1999).”

“Further studies (e.g., Dweck, 1975; Kamins & Dweck, 1999) strengthened this idea that some humans approach situations in which they feel they may fail as opportunities to learn and improve their ability in their chosen fields.”

“According to Kluger and DeNisi (1996), feedback that references one’s self triggers self-related goals, which lead to improved performance only for easy tasks when one can manage to maintain focus on the task (265).”

“Kamis and Dweck ( 1999 ) demonstrate that process related praise is more effective than person focused praise, which reinforces Schoemaker and Smits‐Engelsman’s ( 2005 ) argument that accurate task related feedback is important for success when learning motor skills.”