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Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development.
Abstract
The course, antecedents, and implications for social development of effortful control were examined in this comprehensive longitudinal study. Behavioral multitask batteries and parental ratings assessed effortful control at 22 and 33 months (N = 106). Effortful control functions encompassed delaying, slowing down motor activity, suppressing/initiating activity to signal, effortful attention, and lowering voice. Between 22 and 33 months, effortful control improved considerably, its coherence increased, it was stable, and it was higher for girls. Behavioral and parent-rated measures converged. Children's focused attention at 9 months, mothers' responsiveness at 22 months, and mothers' self-reported socialization level all predicted children's greater effortful control. Effortful control had implications for concurrent social development. Greater effortful control at 22 months was linked to more regulated anger, and at 33 months, to more regulated anger and joy and to stronger restraint.
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“Studies of general development have found that caregiver responsiveness and scaffolding support executive function development during early childhood (Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010; Kochanska, Murray, & Harlan, 2000; Landry, Smith, & Swank, 2006).”
From Inhibitory control and working memory in post-institutionalized children (2013) · cites this paper as Kochanska, Murray, & Harlan, 2000
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Iowa (US)
- ORCID
- Kochanska, Grazyna
- Venue
- Developmental Psychology
- Published
- 2000
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 220-232
- ISSN
- 0012-1649 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-0599
- OpenAlex
- W2011220941
- Cited by
- 1,993
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 47 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 114 · 2020: 186 · 2019: 100 · 2018: 99 · 2017: 97 · 2016: 101 · 2015: 137 · 2014: 108 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 111
- FWCI
- 21.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K02 MH-01446-01, K02MH001446)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Keywords
- effortful control, early childhood, continuity and change, social development (developmental psychology), emotion regulation, anger regulation, restraint, maternal responsiveness, maternal socialization, gender differences
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Age Factors, Child Behavior, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Infant, Male, Mother-Child Relations, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sex Factors, Socialization, Temperament, Cohort Studies, Self Efficacy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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