Cited by 416Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesPsychological Treatments and AssessmentsChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Cognitive biases in generalized social phobia

Foa, Edna B., Franklin, Martin E., Perry, Kevin J., Herbert, James D.·1996·Journal of Abnormal Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0021-843x.105.3.433

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Abstract

Judgmental biases for threat-relevant stimuli are thought to be important mechanisms underlying the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders. The authors hypothesized (a) that people with generalized social phobia (GSP) would rate negative social events but not nonsocial events as more probable and costly than would nonanxious controls (NACs) and (b) that cognitive behavioral treatment would decrease probability and cost estimates for social but not nonsocial events. Participants with GSP and NACs were assessed twice, 14 weeks apart, during which the former received cognitive behavioral therapy. Those with GSP evidenced socially relevant judgmental biases prior to treatment, and these were attenuated following treatment. Reduction in cost estimates for social events, but not in probability estimates, mediated improvement in social phobia. Results are discussed in light of emotional processing theory.

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BackgroundInfluential
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“[22] 28 Outcome When making a decision, one only cares about the outcome of that decision and does not care what the decision-making process is.”
BackgroundInfluential
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Background
Social Anxiety Disorder
Emge, T. M., & Hope, D. A. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09757-2_29 · Cited by 26
Self–Related and Interpersonal Judgment Biases in Social Anxiety Disorder: Changes During Treatment and Relationship to Outcome
Taylor, C. T., & Alden, L. E. (2008) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2008.1.2.125 · Cited by 26
“, probability) and cost (or consequence) of negative social outcomes compared to non–anxious controls and individuals with other anxiety disorders (Foa et al., 1996; Gilboa–Schechtman, Franklin, & Foa, 2000; Lucock & Salkovskis, 1988;McManus, Clark,&Hackmann, 2000;Wilson&Rapee, 2005a).”
BackgroundResult
Vulnerability to interpretation bias in overweight children
Jansen, A. T. M., Smeets, T., Boon, B. J. F., Nederkoorn, C., Roefs, A., & Mulkens, S. (2007) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/14768320600941012 · Cited by 26
“see Foa, Franklin, Perry, & Herbert, 1996; Voncken, Bo¨gels, & de Vries, 2003).”
Cognitive predictors of treatment outcome for exposure therapy: do changes in self-efficacy, self-focused attention, and estimated social costs predict symptom improvement in social anxiety disorder?
Kampmann, I. L., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., & Morina, N. (2019) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-019-2054-2 · Cited by 25
“While some studies found that decreased estimated social cost mediated improvement during cognitive behavioural therapy [18, 19, 21] and exposure therapy [19], others found contradicting results.”
MethodResult
Relationships Between Probability Estimates, Cost Estimates, and Social Anxiety During CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder
Gregory, B., Peters, L., Abbott, M. J., Gaston, J. E., & Rapee, R. M. (2015) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-015-9692-6 · Cited by 25
“…first study to examine the interrelationships between all three variables in a full 12-week group CBT setting in a large sample of clinical participants and present findings are in line with the conclusions of past research (Foa et al. 1996; Hofmann 2004; Smits et al. 2006; Voncken et al. 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
The Relationship of Perfectionism to Judgmental Bias and Psychopathology
DiBartolo, P. M., Li, C. Y., Averett, S., Skotheim, S., Smith, L. M., Raney, C., & McMillen, C. (2007) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9112-z · Cited by 28
“Similarly, the study mentioned earlier by Foa et al. (1996) found that cost, rather than probability, estimates mediated treatment response in individuals with social phobia.”
BackgroundInfluential
An investigation of whether patients with post-traumatic stress disorder overestimate the probability and cost of future negative events
White, M., McManus, F. V., & Ehlers, A. (2008) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.01.004 · Cited by 25
“…in treatment, with some studies reporting reductions in cost of negative events being most closely associated with treatment outcome (e.g., Foa et al., 1996) and others finding that reductions in the overestimation of probability are more closely linked to improvement in treatment…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Development and evaluation of a new paradigm for the assessment of anxiety-disorder-specific interpretation bias using picture stimuli
In‐Albon, T., Klein, A. M., Rinck, M., Becker, E. S., & Schneider, S. (2008) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930701872293 · Cited by 28
“These studies suggest that interpretation biases are content specific (eg, Foa, Franklin, Perry, & Herbert, 1996 ; Voncken, Bogels, & de Vries, 2003 ).”
Cognitive and Emotion Regulation Change Processes in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder
O'Toole, M. S., Mennin, D. S., Hougaard, E., Zachariae, R., & Rosenberg, N. K. (2015) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1926 · Cited by 24
“, 2000), others inflated cost estimates (Foa et al., 1996; Hofmann, 2004) to be associatedwith symptom reduction.”
Background
Fear of negative evaluation, trait anxiety, and judgment bias in adults who stutter
Brundage, S. B., Winters, K. L., & Beilby, J. M. (2017) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2017_ajslp-16-0129 · Cited by 26
“All PWS, regardless of FNE status, consider ambiguous and profoundly negative situations equally threatening, which is in contrast to many traditional theories of social anxiety (Carleton et al., 2010; Foa et al., 1996).”
Result
Cognitive biases among early adolescents with elevated symptoms of anxiety, depression, and co‐occurring symptoms of anxiety‐depression
Weeks, M., Coplan, R. J., & Ooi, L. L. (2016) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.2011 · Cited by 28
Hyper-volume of eye-contact perception and social anxiety traits
Honma, M. (2013) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.12.002 · Cited by 23
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Combat-Related PTSD
Cukor, J., Gerardi, M. A., Alley, S., Reist, C., Roy, M. J., ROTHBAUM, B. O., Difede, J., & Rizzo, A. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-22985-0_7 · Cited by 24
Do blushing phobics overestimate the undesirable communicative effects of their blushing?
de Jong, P. J., & Peters, M. L. (2004) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.06.005 · Cited by 23
Cognitive Vulnerability to Social Anxiety
Ledley, D. R., & Heimberg, R. G. (2006) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2006.25.7.755 · Cited by 50
“In addition to overestimating the likelihood of negative outcomes in social situations, individuals with social phobia also tend to see these outcomes as far more costly than do non–clinical controls (Foa et al., 1996; Gilboa–Schechtman et al., 2000).”
Background
Mechanisms of Change in CBT Treatment
Teachman, B. A., Beadel, J. R., & Steinman, S. A. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118775349.ch40 · Cited by 22
Integrating cognitive behavioral group therapy and psychodrama for social anxiety disorder: An intervention description and an uncontrolled pilot trial
Abeditehrani, H., Dijk, C., Toghchi, M. S., & Arntz, A. R. (2020) · Clinical Psychology in Europe · doi:10.32872/cpe.v2i1.2693 · Cited by 21
“Our findings are in line with research that reported changes in probability or cost estimates after CBT, which in turn related to therapeutic changes in social anxiety symptoms (Foa et al., 1996; Gregory et al., 2015; Hofmann, 2004; Lucock & Salkovskis, 1988).”
Interoceptive active inference and self-representation in social anxiety disorder (SAD): exploring the neurocognitive traits of the SAD self
Gerrans, P., & Murray, R. J. (2020) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niaa026 · Cited by 19
How Do I Measure Up? The Impact of Observable Signs of Anxiety and Confidence on Interpersonal Evaluations in Social Anxiety
Bielak, T., & Moscovitch, D. A. (2012) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9473-4 · Cited by 21
“…rigid standards for social performance (see Moscovitch 2009; Moscovitch and Hofmann 2007; Moscovitch et al. 2012; Wallace and Alden 1991) and expect such partners to criticize or reject them (Bielak and Moscovitch 2012; Foa et al. 1996; Gilboa-Schechtman et al. 2000; Wilson and Rapee 2005a, b).”
Background
Social Anxiety as an Early Warning System
Leary, M. R. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-375096-9.00018-3 · Cited by 24
Obsessive compulsive (OC) symptoms and subjective severity, probability, and coping ability estimations of future negative events
Woods, C. M., Frost, R. O., & Steketee, G. S. (2002) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.304 · Cited by 23
The Appraisal of Social Concerns Scale: Psychometric Validation With a Clinical Sample of Patients With Social Anxiety Disorder
Schultz, L. T., Heimberg, R. G., Rodebaugh, T. L., Schneier, F. R., Liebowitz, M. R., & Telch, M. J. (2006) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.06.001 · Cited by 21
“…it has been demonstrated that, with successful treatment, socially anxious individuals rate the probability of negative social events as less likely (Foa et al., 1996; McManus et al., 2000) and the cost of such events as less catastrophic (Foa et al., 1996; Hofmann, 2004;McManus et al., 2000).”
BackgroundInfluential
Blushing-Fearful Individuals’ Judgmental Biases and Conditional Cognitions: An Internet Inquiry
Dijk, C., de Jong, P. J., Müller, E., & Boersma, W. (2009) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9134-4 · Cited by 20
“Several studies showed that socially-fearful individuals tend to overestimate the costs of a negative social event (i.e., anticipate a negative judgment) and tend to overestimate the probability that such a negative event will actually occur (e.g., Foa et al. 1996).”
BackgroundResult
Long-Term Improvements in Probability and Cost Biases Following Brief Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder
Benbow, A., & Anderson, P. L. (2018) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-9947-0 · Cited by 20
Targeting Common Factors Across Anxiety and Depression Using the Unified Protocol for the Treatment of Emotional Disorders in Adolescents
van Dyk, I. S., Rowley, A. M., & Ehrenreich, J. T. (2014) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-014-0185-4 · Cited by 26
“Judgment bias is defined as the tendency of an individual to overestimate the probability and/or cost of an event (Foa et al. 1996; Lucock and Salkovskis 1988), while interpretation bias refers to the increased likelihood that an individual will use negative explanations to respond to ambiguous events (Amin et al.”
Background
JUDGEMENT OF RISK IN TRAUMATIZED AND NONTRAUMATIZED EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICE PERSONNEL
Nortje, C., Roberts, C. B., & Möller, A. T. (2004) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.95.3f.1119-1128 · Cited by 20
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder: Supporting Evidence and Future Directions
Hambrick, J. P., Weeks, J. W., Harb, G. C., & Heimberg, R. G. (2003) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852900018630 · Cited by 21
Testing the Cognitive Content-Specificity Hypothesis of Social Anxiety and Depression: An Application of Structural Equation Modeling
Cho, Y., & Telch, M. J. (2005) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-005-2081-9 · Cited by 20
“…negative social evaluation and underestimation of one’s social competence or acceptability to others (Beck et al., 1985; D. M. Clark & Wells, 1995; Foa et al., 1996; Ingram & Kendall, 1987; Rapee & Heimberg, 1997; Turk et al., 2001), whereas depressive cognitions are characterized by a more…”
Background
Fear of Blushing: No Overestimation of Negative Anticipated Interpersonal Effects, But a High-Subjective Probability of Blushing
Dijk, C., & de Jong, P. J. (2007) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-007-9145-y · Cited by 19
“Also, since fear of blushing is seen as a marker of social phobia (e.g., Bo ¨ gels & Reith, 1999; Fahle ´ n, 1997; Pollentier, 1992; Scholing & Emmelkamp, 1993), and socially phobic individuals are characterized by several information processing biases, such as overestimating probable costs of social events ( Foa, Fra…”
Background
Self-focused attention, cost/probability bias, and avoidance behavior mediate the relationship between trait mindfulness and social anxiety: A cross-sectional study
Noda, S., Shirotsuki, K., & Sasagawa, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.942801 · Cited by 20
“Cost bias and probability bias are cognitive biases characterized by negative estimates of future events, especially in performance situations (Foa et al., 1996).”
Background
Coping with rejection concerns in romantic relationships: An experimental investigation of social anxiety and risk regulation
Afram, A., & Kashdan, T. B. (2015) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2015.04.003 · Cited by 18

Authors: Foa, E. B., Franklin, M. E., Perry, K. J., & Herbert, J. D.
ORCID: Foa, Edna B.
Franklin, Martin E.
Venue: Journal of Abnormal Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996-08
Volume: 105
Issue: 3
Pages: 433-439
ISSN: 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
1939-1846
DOI: 10.1037/0021-843x.105.3.433
OpenAlex: W2014773448
Cited by: 416
References: 17
Citations by year: 2026: 4 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 20
FWCI: 7.27
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r10mh049340-04)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: generalized social phobia, cognitive biases, probability estimation, cost estimation, cognitive behavioral therapy, anxiety maintenance, emotional processing theory, social anxiety
MeSH terms: Adult, Arousal, Cognition Disorders, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Middle Aged, Personality Inventory, Phobic Disorders, Role Playing, Set, Psychology, Social Perception, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Treatment Outcome

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Cognitive biases in generalized social phobia

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