Cited by 1,198Visual and Cognitive Learning ProcessesInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsIntelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 39 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach.

Open access

Paas, Fred G. W. C., Van Merriënboer, Jeroen J. G.·1994·Journal of Educational Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Four computer-based training strategies for geometrical problem solving in the domain of computer numerically controlled machinery programming were studied with regard to their effects on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load. A low- and a high-variability conventional condition, in which conventional practice problems had to be solved (followed by worked examples), were compared with a low- and a high-variability worked condition, in which worked examples had to be studied. Results showed that students who studied worked examples gained most from high-variability examples, invested less time and mental effort in practice, and attained better and less effort-demanding transfer performance than students who first attempted to solve conventional problems and then studied work examples. In complex cognitive domains such as mathematics, phys-ics, or computer programming, problem solutions can often be characterized by a hierarchical goal structure. The goal of these solutions can be attained only by successfully attaining all subgoals. Learning and performance of complex cogni-tive tasks are typically constrained by limited processing ca-

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122

Cites

39 of 39 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

The text we found for this paper looks like another document, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The text we found for this paper looks like another document, so the self-check wasn’t run.

Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.127 · Cited by 7,335
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.1.1 · Cited by 5,902
A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.122 · Cited by 4,153
Handbook of perception and human performance
Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L., & Thomas, J. P. (1986) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 4,033
Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2 · Cited by 2,894
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I
Schneider, W. E., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Cited by 2,228
Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive-load approach.
Paas, F. G. W. C. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.429 · Cited by 2,150
Self-citation
Self‐Explanations: How Students Study and Use Examples in Learning to Solve Problems
Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1302_1 · Cited by 1,714
Instructional control of cognitive load in the training of complex cognitive tasks
Paas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf02213420 · Cited by 968
Self-citation

Show all 52 references

Sorted by citations

Items 801–900 of 1,170

Comparing the effectiveness of immersive virtual reality and non-immersive video in memorizing soccer tactics: the influence of visuospatial abilities
Mahfoudh, H. B., & Zoudji, B. (2025) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2025.2521334 · Cited by 4
“Participants were also asked to assess the mental effort required to memorize each scene using a 9-point Likert scale, as described by Paas and Van Merriënboer (1994), Paas et al. (2003).”
The use of virtual reality for tactical learning: the moderation of expertise and visuospatial abilities
Mahfoudh, H. B., & Zoudji, B. (2024) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2024.2380693 · Cited by 4
“Individuals were also tasked with assessing the cognitive load involved in memorising each scenario through a subjective Likert rating scale, ranging from 1 to 9 (Paas et al., 2003; Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994).”
Large Language Model Driven Interactive Learning for Real-Time Cognitive Load Prediction in Human-Swarm Systems
Zang, W., Hu, M., & Liu, R. (2024) · IEEE RO-MAN · doi:10.1109/ro-man60168.2024.10731286 · Cited by 4
“Psychophysiolog-ical techniques that include measuring heart rate variability [8] and pupillary dilation [9], provide more nuanced insights but often require expensive equipment [10] and controlled static environments [11].”
Background
Two-Sided Messages in Influencer Marketing: Building Persuasion Through Increased Sincerity and Decreased Commercial Motives
Wang, B. (2025) · Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising · doi:10.1080/10641734.2025.2557877 · Cited by 4
“Cognitive load is a multidimensional construct that describes the mental resources required to perform a task (Paas and Van Merriënboer 1994).”
Explicitation and cognitive load in sight interpreting/translation (SiT): a study into explicitating behaviour of English-Spanish trainee interpreters
Gumul, E., & Díaz, J. P.-L. (2025) · The Interpreter and Translator Trainer · doi:10.1080/1750399x.2025.2568285 · Cited by 4
Some Correct Strategies Are Better Than Others: Individual Differences in Strategy Evaluations Are Related to Strategy Adoption
Menéndez, D., Brown, S. A., & Alibali, M. W. (2023) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13269 · Cited by 3
A Method for Classifying Cognitive Load of Visual Tasks Based on Eye Tracking Features
Zhong, X., & Hou, W. (2023) · International Conference on Virtual Reality · doi:10.1109/icvr57957.2023.10169792 · Cited by 4
“Paas and Van M. [2], [3] argued that multiple dimensions constitute the total cognitive load and that when performing a specific task, the cognitive load is imposed on the individual's cognitive system along with the task.”
Background
Prediction of mental effort derived from an automated vocal biomarker using machine learning in a large-scale remote sample
Taptiklis, N., Su, M. T., Barnett, J. H., Skirrow, C., Kroll, J., & Cormack, F. K. (2023) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2023.1171652 · Cited by 5
A Real-Time Measurement Model of Attention-Allocation Level and Its Application in Simulated SPO Task
Wang, L., Zhang, Z., Tan, W., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Aerospace Engineering · doi:10.1155/2024/3901699 · Cited by 4
Multidisciplinary teaching with an active video game: the effect on learning in mathematics and physical education
Cece, V., Fargier, P., Roure, C., & Lentillon‐Kaestner, V. (2024) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2024.2407380 · Cited by 5
“…the control group subjects improved their mathematics and PE scores less than the experimental group subjects did, considering that variability has been found to positively influence both throwing accuracy (Chua et al., 2019) and geometrical problem-solving skills (Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994).”
The Effect Of Structure On Convergence Activities Using Group Support Systems
Vogel, D., & Coombes, J. E. (2010) · Advances in group decision and negotiation/Advances in group decision and negotation · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9097-3_18 · Cited by 4
IMPROVING LEARNING RESULTS AND REDUCING COGNITIVE LOAD THROUGH 3D COURSEWARE ON COLOR MANAGEMENT AND INSPECTION INSTRUCTION
Hsiung, L.-Y., & Lai, M.-H. (2013) · The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology · Cited by 4
Stress and Cognitive Load
Chen, F., Zhou, J. J., Wang, Y., Yu, K., Arshad, S. Z., Khawaji, A., & Conway, D. (2016) · Human-computer interaction series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31700-7_12 · Cited by 4
A Case Study of Peer Instruction
Porter, L., & Simon, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.031 · Cited by 4
A Novel Mixed Methods Approach to Synthesize EDA Data with Behavioral Data to Gain Educational Insight
Reid, C., Keighrey, C., Murray, N., Dunbar, R., & Buckley, J. (2020) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s20236857 · Cited by 5
“These include eye-tracking, pupillometry, electroencephalography (EEG), heart rate (HR) and EDA [3,22,23,38].”
Background
Articuler connaissances en psychologie cognitive et ingénierie pédagogique
Tricot, A. (2021) · Raisons éducatives · doi:10.3917/raised.025.0141 · Cited by 4
Implications of the Four Component Instructional Design Model for Multimedia Learning
Kester, L., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.011 · Cited by 6
Self-citation
Effects of Cognitive Load Level on Students’ Attitude towards the Gamified Course
Topu, F. B. (2022) · Journal of Learning and Teaching in Digital Age · doi:10.53850/joltida.1147246 · Cited by 4
“Cognitive Load Scale was developed by Paas and van Merriënboer (1994) and Cronbach’s alpha of the one-item scale was calculated as α =.82.”
The Role of Sleep Quality and Physical Activity Level on Gait Speed and Brain Hemodynamics Changes in Young Adults—A Dual-Task Study
Saraiva, M., Castro, M. A., & Vilas‐Boas, J. P. (2022) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe12110117 · Cited by 4
Expert Blind Spot in Pre-Service and In-Service Mathematics Teachers: Task Design moderates Overestimation of Novices’ Performance
Hellmann, K., & Nückles, M. (2013) · Cognitive Science · Cited by 4
The Effects of Concept Map-Oriented Gesture-Based Teaching System on Learners’ Learning Performance and Cognitive Load in Earth Science Course
Hsieh, S.-W., Ho, S.-C., Wu, M.-P., & Ni, C.-Y. (2016) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.12973/eurasia.2016.1235a · Cited by 4
The Effects of Multiple Presentation Formats on Subjective Mental Workload Rating Scale Techniques in Multimedia Educational Environments
Windell, D. T. (2007) · NCSU Libraries Repository (North Carolina State University Libraries) · Cited by 4
Managing Cognitive Load During Complex Learning: A Study on Worked Examples and Element Interactivity
Gupta, U. (2019) · J. Willard Marriott Library · doi:10.33524/0f-8w9c-1dwz · Cited by 4
Reducing the Split-Attention Effect in Assembly based Instruction by Merging Physical Parts with Holograms in Mixed Reality
Dixon, D., Terton, U., & Greenaway, R. (2018) · International Conference on Computer Supported Education · doi:10.5220/0006691202350244 · Cited by 4
“The use of cardiological (heart rate) measurements have been established as part of an empirical study into measurement techniques within the cognitive load framework (Paas et al., 1994).”
Method
Lectures and Discussions in Semi-Immersive Virtual Reality Learning Environments
Nussli, N., Oh, K., Cuadro, N. M., & Kaye, M. P. (2019) · Advances in multimedia and interactive technologies book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-5912-2.ch005 · Cited by 4
Working Memory Resources Depletion Makes Delayed Testing Beneficial
Chen, O., & Kalyuga, S. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology · doi:10.1891/jcep-d-20-00024 · Cited by 7
The Effects of Routinization on Radical and Incremental Creativity: The Mediating Role of Mental Workloads
Chae, H., & Park, J. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20043160 · Cited by 4
Exploring a Sustainable Building’s Impact on Occupant Mental Health and Cognitive Function in a Virtual Environment
Vivino, A. A., Bernat, E. M., Simon, M., Hu, M., & Fix, S. T. (2021) · doi:10.35483/acsa.am.109.33 · Cited by 4
Training and Transfer of Complex Cognitive Skills: Effects of Worked Examples and Conventional Problem-Solving.
Darabi, A., & Nelson, D. W. (2005) · Association for Educational Communications and Technology Annual Meeting · Cited by 4
Learning stoichiometry: A comparison of text and multimedia instructional formats
Evans, K. L. (2007) · Cited by 4
Gaining Ground: Merging Cognitive Load Theory with Human Factors Principles
Keebler, J. R., Ososky, S., Jentsch, F. G., & Fincannon, T. D. (2010) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/154193121005400804 · Cited by 4
Effects of Objects' "Embodiment" on the Acquisition of Problem-Solving Skills through Practice or Video-based Modeling Example Study
van Gog, T., Post, L. S., ten Napel, R., & Deijkers, L. (2013) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 4
Exploring the Correlation Between Attention and Cognitive Load of Students When Attending Different Classes
Cheng, S.-C., Cheng, Y., Huang, C.-H., & Huang, Y. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-99737-7_21 · Cited by 4
Guiding Students’ Attention During Example Study by Showing the Model’s Eye Movements
van Gog, T., Jarodzka, H. M., Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P. H., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8827-8_26 · Cited by 4
Self-citation
Process Support for Learning Tasks in Multimedia Practicals.
Nadolski, R. J. (2004) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 4
Succesful cognitive aging : the use of computers and the internet to support autonomy in later life
Slegers, K. (2006) · doi:10.26481/dis.20060518ks · Cited by 4
Promoting Conceptual Understanding via Adaptive Concept Maps
Moore, J. (2013) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 3
Virtual Reality Impacts on Novice Programmers' Self-Efficacy
Sun, N., & Lages, W. S. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2025.3549567 · Cited by 3
“According to the Cognitive Load theory [41,57,58] instruction can impose three types of loads on the learner’s cognitive system: intrinsic load, caused by task complexity and prior knowledge; germane load, caused by features beneﬁcial for learning; and extraneous load, caused by instructional…”
Learning with erroneous visualizations modulates retention depending on perceptual richness and test type
Dechamps, T., & Skulmowski, A. (2025) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2025.100256 · Cited by 3
“Another positive impact that erroneous examples could have when being combined with perceptually rich visualizations is that they may further strengthen learning through the variability of the task (known as the variability effect [46,47,48]).”
Eye-Tracking Data in the Exploration of Students’ Engagement with Representations in Mathematics: Areas of Interest (AOIs) as Methodological and Conceptual Challenges
Nedaei, M., Säljö, R., Kanwal, S., & Goodchild, S. (2025) · Journal of Eye Movement Research · doi:10.3390/jemr18060065 · Cited by 3
“Cognitive load is defined as “a multi-dimensional construct that represents the load that performing a particular task imposes on the cognitive system of a particular learner” [44] (p. 122).”
Fixations, regressions, and results: eye-tracking metrics as real-time signals of cognitive engagement in flipped-class quizzes
Wang, Y., Xie, N., & Liu, Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1639273 · Cited by 3
Improving Construction Safety: The Role of Workplace Stressors and Personality Traits on Near-Miss Recognition of Workers’
Muley, S., & Wang, C. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61066-0_6 · Cited by 3
Simulated patient consultations in a second language: the role of open learning tasks in enhancing competence and intrinsic motivation
Yu, H., Xu, T., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Asoodar, M. (2024) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2024.2426966 · Cited by 3
“…is to incorporate so-called desirable difficulties (Bjork & Bjork, 2020), this can be done by increasing the variability over a series of tasks (Paas & Van Merri € enboer, 1994), intentionally eliciting error (Eva, 2009; Palominos et al., 2019), and increasing the difficulty of tasks (Bjork &…”
Self-citation
Reconceptualizing Cognitive Load Theory
Kalyuga, S., & Plass, J. L. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190078539.003.0007 · Cited by 3
An efficient method for acquiring auditing procedural knowledge
Dillard-Eggers, J., & Roberts, M. L. (2010) · Advances in accounting behavioral research · doi:10.1108/s1475-1488(2010)0000013008 · Cited by 3
Facilitating student learning: An instructional design perspective for health professions educators
Noushad, B., & Khurshid, F. (2019) · Research and Development in Medical Education · doi:10.15171/rdme.2019.014 · Cited by 4
Improving Student Internalization of Disaster Knowledge by Participating in Learning Package Development
Oktari, R. S., & Kumala, I. D. (2020) · Jurnal Pengabdian Kepada Masyarakat · doi:10.22146/jpkm.51558 · Cited by 7
A Cognitive Load Perspective to Instructional Design for Online Learning
Dönmez, O. (2021) · Advances in mobile and distance learning book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-8701-0.ch019 · Cited by 4
Measuring Cognitive Loads while Learning Computational Statistics
Quintero-Manes, R., Vieira, C., & Hernandez-Vargas, N. (2022) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie56618.2022.9962606 · Cited by 3
“The second approach implements the secondary task at the same time as the primary task, and measures either the number of times the student responds to the secondary task or the reaction time [8, 9, 10].”
Method
The use of cognitive load theory to assist in the teaching of electrocardiogram interpretation within paramedical science education
Thomas, M. G. (2024) · The Clinical Teacher · doi:10.1111/tct.13759 · Cited by 4
Involving the Body to Improve Letter Knowledge and Script: an Experimental Study in French Kindergarten
Núñez‐Regueiro, F., Boissicat, N., Gimbert, F., Pobel-Burtin, C., Croset, M., Bosse, M., & Nurra, C. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09923-9 · Cited by 4
“According to the variability effect (Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994), experiencing these distinct representations using a hierarchical design will increase the identification of the relevant features of the trained letter (e.g., in terms of shape, size, letter stroke direction) and differentiate them…”
The Distorting Influence of Primacy Effects on Reporting Cognitive Load in Learning Materials of Varying Complexity
Krieglstein, F., Beege, M., Wesenberg, L., Rey, G. D., & Schneider, S. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09980-0 · Cited by 8
“In subsequent years, several scales have been used that measure cognitive load as an overall construct (Ayres, 2006; Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994) or separately (i.e., one type is explicitly measured; Cierniak et al., 2009; Kalyuga et al., 1998).”
Does Instructors' and Students' On‐Camera Presence Enhance Learning?
Jiang, X., Li, Y., Kuang, Z., & Jiajun, Y. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.13122 · Cited by 6
Development and Validation of a Problem Solving Skill Test in Robot Programming Using Scaffolding Tools
Purnakanishtha, S., Suwannatthachote, P., & Nilsook, P. (2014) · Open Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.4236/jss.2014.22007 · Cited by 3
“Problem Solving Problem solving has long been a goal in education; researchers and theorists have advanced markedly different conceptions and method of study [3] Numerous problem-solving phases and associated learning activities have been proposed, reflecting diverse theoretical orientations such as information proces…”
Background
Teaching students self-assessment and task-selection skills with video-based modeling examples
van Gog, T., Kostons, D. D. N. M., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2010) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 3
Self-citation
Effects of part-task and whole-task instructional approaches and learner levels of expertise on learner performance of a complex cognitive task
Reiser, R. A., & Lim, J. H. (2006) · Cited by 3
The Use of Gesturing to Facilitate Older Adults’ Learning from Computer-Based Dynamic Visualizations
Ouwehand, K., van Gog, T., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2012) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-1966-1.ch003 · Cited by 4
Self-citation
All Is in Order
Sweller, J. (2007) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195178845.003.0015 · Cited by 3
A Quantitative Model for Unifying Human Factors with Cognitive Load Theory
Sonnenfeld, N. A., & Keebler, J. R. (2016) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1541931213601091 · Cited by 3
“Cognitive load is a multidimensional construct representing the aggregate load that all aspects of a particular instructional task impose on the cognitive system of the learner (Paas & Van Merrienboer, 1994); comprised of intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load factors (Sweller, 2010).”
Background
The Influence of Flow in the Measure of Engagement
Sharek, D. J. (2010) · NCSU Libraries Repository (North Carolina State University Libraries) · Cited by 3
Data Collection and Analysis
van Gog, T., PAAS, F. G. W. C., Savenye, W. C., Robinson, R. S., Niemczyk, M. C., Atkinson, R., Johnson, T. E., O’Connor, D. L., Rikers, R. M. J. P., Ayres, P., et al. (2007) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch55 · Cited by 3
Self-citation
A Personalized Summative Model based on Learner’s Effort
Bañeres, D. (2017) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v12i06.7165 · Cited by 4
Worked Examples
Sweller, J., & Ayres, P. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199841332.013.17 · Cited by 5
Mathematische Modellbildung und Videoanalyse zum Lernen der Newtonschen Dynamik im Vergleich
Weber, J. (2022) · Logos Verlag Berlin eBooks · doi:10.30819/5566 · Cited by 4
A Laboratory Study of Student Usage of Worked-example Videos to Support Problem Solving
Berger, E., & Wilson, M. (2016) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/p.26342 · Cited by 3
“There is a huge range of physiological indicators as well, including heart rate([14]) and neural activity/EEG([15]), but these approaches suffer from complicated experimental designs and (in some cases) prohibitive cost.”
Background
Factors affecting nursing staff use of nursing information systems in residential aged care homes
Galani, M. (2015) · Research Online (University of Wollongong) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.1.4364.6969 · Cited by 3
The Acquisition of Procedural Skills: An Analysis of the Worked-Example Effect Using Animated Demonstrations
Lewis, D. (2008) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 3
Examining the Relationship Between Fact Learning and Higher Order Learning via Retrieval Practice
Agarwal, P. K. (2011) · DigitalCommons-IMSA (Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy) · doi:10.7936/k7j38qng · Cited by 3
Lösungsbeispiel "pur" oder "angereichert"? Bedingungen und Effekte erfolgreichen Lernens mit einem komplexen Lösungsbeispiel im Bereich empirischer Forschungsmethoden und Statistik.
Stark, R., Flender, J., & Mandl, H. (2001) · Open access LMU (Ludwid Maxmilian's Universitat Munchen) · doi:10.5282/ubm/epub.254 · Cited by 3
Efficient complex skill training into old age : exploring the benefits of cognitive load theory
Gerven, P. W. M. V. (2002) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20020621pg · Cited by 3
Training complex judgment : the effects of critical thinking and contextual interference
Helsdingen, A. S. (2008) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 2
Fostering expert learning strategies in novices
de Bruin, A. B. H. (2006) · EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 3
Auditor Business Process Analysis and Linkages Among Auditor Risk JudgementsPreprint
Kochetova, N., Kozloski, T. M., & Messier, W. F. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1578923 · Cited by 3
An Integrated Evaluation Approach for E-Learning Systems in Career and Technical Education
Huang, W. D., & Aragon, S. R. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-739-3.ch031 · Cited by 3
Pedagogical efficacy of argument visualization tools
Niu, H. (2016) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 3
Learning to Program: The Development of Knowledge in Novice Programmers
Kasto, N. (2016) · Tuwhera (Auckland University of Technology) · Cited by 3
Social Cues in Animated Pedagogical Agents for Second Language Learners: the Application of The Embodiment Principle in Video Design
Alyahya, S. M. (2021) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 3
Knowledge Transfer
Nokes‐Malach, T. J., & Richey, J. E. (2015) · Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0197 · Cited by 4
“Other work has focused on the nature of the learning material, including research on using worked examples (Atkinson, Renkl, & Merrill, 2003; Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994), the role of variability in practice (Chen, 1999; Nokes & Ohlsson, 2005), and whether the learning content was concrete or…”
Method
Cognitive load theory: researching and planning teaching to maximise learning
Szulewski, A., van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2022) · Researching Medical Education · doi:10.1002/9781119839446.ch27 · Cited by 3
Self-citation
Learning generalizable visuomotor mappings fo r de novo skillsPreprint
Velázquez-Vargas, C. A., Daw, N. D., & Taylor, J. A. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.07.18.549179 · Cited by 3
Multi-touch in control systems : Two case studies
Nord, M., & Vestgöte, H. (2010) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 3
Transitioning from Presenter to Facilitator
Wan, M. (2013) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b16069-20 · Cited by 2
Understanding the reasons and cues that guide general chemistry students’ studying decisions
Keenan, K., Baquero, A., Alsharabi, E., & Pratt, J. M. (2025) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d5rp00086f · Cited by 2
AI-driven mixed-methods analysis of technology dependence: Personality-moderated pathways to Oral English anxiety in language learning
Wang, X., Lin, S., Chen, B., & Zhang, H. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105670 · Cited by 2
Chatbots in Science Education: A Scoping Review of Early Empirical Evidence
Utrilla, M. C., Paños, E., & Ruíz-Gallardo, J.-R. (2025) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-025-10260-x · Cited by 7
“…1998), already named in Debets’ (2025) review, offers a useful framework to understand how chatbots might reduce the burden on working memory, for example, through step-by-step clarifications or worked examples in areas where students face the greatest difficulties (Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994).”
Research on the influence of MW on situation awareness in shearer monitoring tasks in intelligent coal mines
Yuan, X., Fan, J., & Zhang, Y. (2026) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-025-07214-5 · Cited by 2
External and internal smartphone distractions: Effects on phone use and learning performance in college classrooms
Liao, H.-H., Liu, T., & Lin, Y.-C. (2026) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-026-09794-3 · Cited by 5
“In cognitive load research, mental effort is defined as the cognitive resources that are actually invested to accommodate task demands; it is therefore taken to reflect actual cognitive load during task processing (Paas et al., 2003; Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994 ).”
Crowdsourcing, cognitive load, and user interface design
Rahmanian, B., & Davis, J. G. (2013) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · Cited by 2
Les erreurs commises lors de la résolution du problème source favorisent-elles le transfert analogique? Un réexamen de la recherche de Gick et McGarry (1992)
Nogry, S., & Didierjean, A. (2007) · Psychologie Française · doi:10.1016/j.psfr.2006.12.006 · Cited by 4
The Influence of Cognitive Loading on Schema Construction and Automation and Approaches to Learning in Students Studying Construction
Zulu, E., & Haupt, T. (2017) · World Engineering Education Forum - Global Engineering Deans Council (WEEF-GEDC) · doi:10.1109/weef.2017.8467094 · Cited by 2
PERBANDINGAN KESAN PEMBELAJARAN BERASASKAN CONTOH-MASALAH DAN PEMBELAJARAN PEMUSATAN-GURU TERHADAP PEMEROLEHAN PENGETAHUAN PELAJAR
Jalani, N. H., & Sern, L. C. (2017) · The Asia Pacific Journal of Curriculum & Teaching · Cited by 2
Online Learning: Does Integrated Video Lecture Help You Learn More Efficiently?
Bai, X., & Vu, K. L. (2022) · Automation, collaboration, and e-services · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10780-1_29 · Cited by 2
Perceived cognitive load and students’ performance in social studies
Achor, S. Z., Zaria, L. I., & Achor, E. E. (2022) · Journal of Research in Instructional · doi:10.30862/jri.v2i2.74 · Cited by 2
Retrieval practice may not benefit mathematical word-problem solving
Huang, X., Zheng, S., Yu, Z., & Chen, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1093653 · Cited by 3
High variability in learning materials benefits children’s pattern practice
Zhang, T., & Fyfe, E. R. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105829 · Cited by 2
Did the Rapid Transition to Online Learning in Response to COVID-19 Impact Students’ Cognitive Load and Performance in Veterinary Anatomy?
Jones, K., Miller, D. J., & Noble, P. (2024) · Journal of Veterinary Medical Education · doi:10.3138/jvme-2023-0135 · Cited by 2
Edgeworth: Efficient and Scalable Authoring of Visual Thinking Activities
Ni, W., Estep, S., Harriman, H.-S., Koedinger, K. R., & Sunshine, J. (2024) · ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale (L@S) · doi:10.1145/3657604.3662034 · Cited by 2
“Research also indicates the importance of active learning [12, 15] and repeated practice [18, 51] that occurs within varied contexts [42, 49].”
Teaching with worked examples – Why the selection of problems for exemplification is critical
Wesenberg, L., Krieglstein, F., Jansen, S., Rey, G. D., & Schneider, S. (2024) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2024.102328 · Cited by 4
Differential Dermal Potential: A New Paradigm for Measuring Cognitive Load
Jaiswal, D., Chatterjee, D., Ramakrishnan, R. K., Pal, A., & Ghosh, R. (2024) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc53108.2024.10782424 · Cited by 2
“Hence, these are not suitable for continuous measurement of CL. Physiological responses like heart rate [5], brain signals [6], respiration [7], pupil dilation [8] and skin conductance [9] are also used for measuring CL. Electrodermal activity is the electrical activity of the skin [10].”
Criticisms and Desired Additional Modifications
Kalyuga, S., & Plass, J. L. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190078539.003.0004 · Cited by 1

Authors: Paas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G.
Affiliations: Maastricht University (NL)
ORCID: Paas, Fred G. W. C.
Van Merriënboer, Jeroen J. G.
Venue: Journal of Educational Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1994-03
Volume: 86
Issue: 1
Pages: 122-133
ISSN: 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
1939-2176
DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122
OpenAlex: W2116669434
Cited by: 1,198
References: 52
Citations by year: 2026: 69 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 89 · 2018: 42 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 69 · 2013: 62 · 2012: 59
FWCI: 7.63
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
research.utwente.nl
Licence: other-oa
Locations: Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
University of Twente Research Information (publishedVersion, other-oa)
University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
Keywords: worked examples, transfer of learning, cognitive load, computer-based training, practice questions, cognitive effort, training performance

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-12 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Self-check

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks