Cited by 1,198Visual and Cognitive Learning ProcessesInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsIntelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 39 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach.

Open access

Paas, Fred G. W. C., Van Merriënboer, Jeroen J. G.·1994·Journal of Educational Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Four computer-based training strategies for geometrical problem solving in the domain of computer numerically controlled machinery programming were studied with regard to their effects on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load. A low- and a high-variability conventional condition, in which conventional practice problems had to be solved (followed by worked examples), were compared with a low- and a high-variability worked condition, in which worked examples had to be studied. Results showed that students who studied worked examples gained most from high-variability examples, invested less time and mental effort in practice, and attained better and less effort-demanding transfer performance than students who first attempted to solve conventional problems and then studied work examples. In complex cognitive domains such as mathematics, phys-ics, or computer programming, problem solutions can often be characterized by a hierarchical goal structure. The goal of these solutions can be attained only by successfully attaining all subgoals. Learning and performance of complex cogni-tive tasks are typically constrained by limited processing ca-

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122

Cites

39 of 39 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

The text we found for this paper looks like another document, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The text we found for this paper looks like another document, so the self-check wasn’t run.

Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.127 · Cited by 7,335
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.1.1 · Cited by 5,902
A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.122 · Cited by 4,153
Handbook of perception and human performance
Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L., & Thomas, J. P. (1986) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 4,033
Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2 · Cited by 2,894
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I
Schneider, W. E., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Cited by 2,228
Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive-load approach.
Paas, F. G. W. C. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.429 · Cited by 2,150
Self-citation
Self‐Explanations: How Students Study and Use Examples in Learning to Solve Problems
Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1302_1 · Cited by 1,714
Instructional control of cognitive load in the training of complex cognitive tasks
Paas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf02213420 · Cited by 968
Self-citation

Show all 52 references

Sorted by citations

Items 601–700 of 1,170

Research on the design and application of “MOOC + flipped classroom” for basketball courses in colleges and universities from the perspective of education modernization
Hu, T., Liu, H., & Xia, F. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1060257 · Cited by 14
“…guidance for the effective implementation of this instructional model by regulating the reduction of learners’ external cognitive load, optimizing the associated cognitive load, and regulating the internal cognitive load (Paas and Van Merriënboer, 1994; Pollock et al., 2002; Onah et al., 2021).”
Background
Measuring cognitive load in multitasking using mobile fNIRS
Boere, K., Anderson, F., Hecker, K. G., & Krigolson, O. E. (2024) · Neuroimage Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ynirp.2024.100228 · Cited by 15
“Traditionally, cognitive load has been measured using subjective methods, such as self-reported mental effort ratings (Paas, 1992; Paas and van Merri ¨ enboer, 1994).”
Exploring the effects of technology-supported collaborative inquiry and students’ ICT competency on scientific literacy and subject knowledge in rural science classrooms
Chen, F., Zhang, Y., & Chen, G. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13512-w · Cited by 31
“In contrast, low-ICT students, due to their limited ICT competency, may experience a higher cognitive load when par - ticipating in these activities (Kirschner, 2002; Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994).”
How to teach geometry theorems using worked examples: A cognitive load theory perspective
Rohman, H. M. H., & Retnowati, E. (2018) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1097/1/012104 · Cited by 13
Learning Outside the Classroom
Begel, A., & Ko, A. J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.027 · Cited by 18
The imagination effect when using textual or diagrammatic material to learn a second language
Ignatova, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2020) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168820971785 · Cited by 13
“Immediately after the 30-minute instruction phase, each participant was asked to estimate how easy or difficult it was to learn the instructional material using a nine-point Likert rating scale of ordered responses (Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1993, 1994).”
Method
The UNSW submission to INTERSPEECH 2014 compare cognitive load challenge
Kua, J. M. K., Sethu, V., Le, P. N., & Eliathamby Ambikairajah, A. (2014) · Interspeech (USB) · doi:10.21437/interspeech.2014-113 · Cited by 13
“Over the last two decades, a number of techniques based on physiological measures [3, 4], behavioural measures [5, 6] and performance measures [1, 7] have been proposed for measuring cognitive load level.”
Background
Faded-example as a Tool to Acquire and Automate Mathematics Knowledge
Retnowati, E. (2017) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/824/1/012054 · Cited by 13
Reading Versus Doing: Methods of Teaching Problem-Solving in Introductory Statistics
Brisbin, A. G., & do Nascimento, E. M. (2019) · Journal of Statistics Education · doi:10.1080/10691898.2019.1637801 · Cited by 14
“…inexperienced as high school students (Paas 1992; Renkl and Atkinson 2003; Salden et al. 2009) up to college students as advanced as in the second semester of a 2-semester course sequence (Ringenberg and VanLehn 2006) or in their fourth year of vocational training (Paas and Van Merriënboer 1994).”
BackgroundInfluential
Decreasing the Presentation Speed of Animated Soccer Scenes Does Not Always Lead to Better Learning Outcomes in Young Players
Rekik, G., Belkhir, Y., Mnif, M., Masmoudi, L., & Jarraya, M. (2019) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2019.1681658 · Cited by 13
“This selfrating measure is widely accepted as valid and reliable for estimating cognitive load (e.g., Paas, 1992; Paas, Tuovinen, Tabbers, & Van Gerven, 2003; Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994).”
Method
Understanding the Effects of Databases as Cognitive Tools in a Problem-Based Multimedia Learning Environment
Li, R., & Liu, M. (2007) · The Journal of Interactive Learning Research · Cited by 13
Towards Cognitive Load Theory as Guideline for Instructional Design in Science Education
Meissner, B. A., & Bogner, F. X. (2013) · World Journal of Education · doi:10.5430/wje.v3n2p24 · Cited by 20
Developing Handwriting-based Intelligent Tutors to Enhance Mathematics Learning
Anthony, L., Mankoff, J., Mitchell, T., & Gross, M. D. (2008) · Cited by 13
Mindfulness in Education
Reber, R. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118294895.ch54 · Cited by 13
Timing of information presentation and the acquisition of complex skills
Kester, L. (2003) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 13
Pursued spatial perception benefit considering attractiveness and cognitive load: Appropriate visual complexity of indoor commercial space
Chen, T., Wang, L., Huang, B., et al. (2024) · Journal of Building Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2024.111144 · Cited by 12
Working Memory and Instructional Fit: Reintroducing Aptitude–Treatment Interaction in Education Research
Sana, F., & Fenesi, B. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15060765 · Cited by 21
“Research indicates that lower-WMC learners benefit more from worked examples compared to unstructured problem-solving approaches, as worked examples help scaffold complex information and prevent cognitive overload (Sweller, 2017; Paas & van Merriënboer, 1994).”
Cognitive Load Estimation Using a Hybrid Cluster-Based Unsupervised Machine Learning Technique
Hassan, I., Zolezzi, M., Khalil, H. W., Al-Saady, R., Pedersen, S., & Chowdhury, M. E. H. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3428691 · Cited by 12
“Previous studies have employed both analytical and empirical approaches for CL assessment [5], [25].”
Result
Evaluation of cognitive load and user experience in alternative interaction modes under different noise degrees
Xie, X., Wang, Y., Cui, Y., Suihuai, Y., Chen, D., & Chu, J. (2025) · Advanced Engineering Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.aei.2025.103328 · Cited by 16
How Cognitive Science Can Promote Conceptual Understanding in Physics Classrooms
Mestre, J. P., Ross, B. H., Brookes, D. T., Smith, A. D., & Nokes, T. J. (2009) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789087909239_009 · Cited by 12
“solving and that studying worked-out examples is better (Cooper & Sweller, 1987; Paas 1992; Paas & van Merrienboer, 1994).”
Background
An Investigation of the Impact of a Social Constructivist Teaching Approach, based on Trigger Questions, Through Measures of Mental Workload and Efficiency
Orrú, G., Gobbo, F., O’Sullivan, D., & Longo, L. (2018) · International Conference on Computer Supported Education · doi:10.5220/0006790702920302 · Cited by 12
“In contrast to unidimensional scales of mental load measurements such as effort and task difficulty proposed in Paas and Van Merriënboer (1993, 1994) and Paas et al. (2003), they focus on different components of load.”
Method
Instructional support for learning with agent-based simulations: A tale of vicarious and guided exploration learning approaches
Dubovi, I., & Lee, V. R. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103644 · Cited by 14
Measuring connections: Engineering students’ cognitive activities and performance on complex tasks
Barrella, E. M., Cowan, C., Girdner, J., Watson, M. K., & Anderson, R. D. (2019) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie43999.2019.9028595 · Cited by 13
“Cognitive Load is defined as the measure of effort exerted by the working memory in a given instance [2, 6, 7].”
Background
A new application of the temporal contiguity effect in designing narrated slideshows
Liu, T., Lin, Y.-C., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-021-10076-7 · Cited by 11
Self-citation
Revisiting Human-Robot Teaching and Learning Through the Lens of Human Concept Learning
Booth, S., Sharma, S., Chung, S., Shah, J., & Glassman, E. L. (2022) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1109/hri53351.2022.9889398 · Cited by 13
“Students studying high-variability geometry problems required less mental effort than those studying low-variability examples, and their transfer performance was better and less effortful [15].”
Background
Adaptive Diagrams: A Research Agenda to Explore How Learners Can Manipulate Online Diagrams to Self-Manage Cognitive Load
Agostinho, S., Tindall‐Ford, S., & Bokosmaty, S. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7485-2_21 · Cited by 12
“This design principle states that problems are more effectively explained when the solution is explained out step-by-step for learners [37; 38; 39]”
Background
The Effect of Prior Conceptual Knowledge on Procedural Performance and Learning in Algebra
Booth, J. L., Koedinger, K. R., & Siegler, R. S. (2007) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 12
Effectiveness of Combining Worked Examples and Deliberate Practice for High School Geometry
Pachman, M., Sweller, J., & Kalyuga, S. (2014) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3054 · Cited by 12
Scheduling Scaffolding: The Extent and Arrangement of Assistance During Training Impacts Test Performance
Tullis, J. G., Goldstone, R. L., & Hanson, A. J. (2015) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222895.2015.1008686 · Cited by 12
Measuring Difficulty in Translation and Post-editing: A Review
Sun, S. (2018) · New frontiers in translation studies · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1984-6_7 · Cited by 12
Leveraging the Integrated Development Environment for Learning Analytics
Carter, A., Hundhausen, C. D., & Olivares, D. M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.024 · Cited by 13
Stress, cognitive, emotional and ergonomic demands in interpreting and translation
Gieshoff, A. C., Lehr, C., & Heeb, A. H. (2021) · Cognitive Linguistic Studies · doi:10.1075/cogls.00084.gie · Cited by 12
Completion problems can reduce the illusions of understanding in a computer-based learning environment on genetics
Mihalca, L., Mengelkamp, C., Schnotz, W., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2015) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.01.001 · Cited by 16
Self-citation
Using Cognitive Load Measurement and Spatial Ability Test to Identify Talented Students in Three-Dimensional Computer Graphics Programming
Anvari, F., Tran, H. M. T., & Kavakli, M. (2013) · International Journal of Information and Education Technology · doi:10.7763/ijiet.2013.v3.241 · Cited by 13
Immediate versus delayed feedback in simulation-based training: Matching feedback delivery timing to the cognitive demands of the training exercise
Bolton, A. E. (2006) · Cited by 12
Teacher Knowledge for Inclusive Computing Learning
Goode, J., & Ryoo, J. J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.025 · Cited by 12
Why the bottom 10% just can't do it: mental effort measures and implication for introductory programming courses
Mason, R., & Cooper, G. A. (2012) · Cross Connect (Southern Cross University) · doi:10.5555/2483716.2483738 · Cited by 12
Peers turning on cameras promotes learning in video conferencing
Pi, Z., Zhang, L., Zhao, X., & Li, X. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104986 · Cited by 11
Effect of utilizing Geometer’s Sketchpad on performance and mathematical thinking of secondary mathematics learners: An initial exploration
Bakar, K. A., Tarmizi, R. A., Ayub, A. F. M., et al. (2009) · Universiti Putra Malaysia Institutional Repository (Universiti Putra Malaysia) · Cited by 11
A Mixed Methods Approach To Investigating Cognitive Load And Cognitive Presence In An Online And Face-To-Face College Algebra Course
Mills, J. J. (2016) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · doi:10.13023/etd.2016.069 · Cited by 13
The Effect of Types of Dictionary Presentation on the Retention of Metaphorical Collocations: Involvement Load Hypothesis vs. Cognitive Load Theory
Dai, Y., Wu, Z., & Xu, H. Y. (2019) · International Journal of Lexicography · doi:10.1093/ijl/ecz010 · Cited by 11
Effects of emotional decorative pictures on cognitive load as assessed by pupil dilation and EEG frequency band power
Scharinger, C. (2023) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4087 · Cited by 11
Unpacking the temporal advantage of distributing complex visual displays
Jang, J., Trickett, S. B., Schunn, C. D., & Trafton, J. G. (2012) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2012.07.003 · Cited by 11
The effects of worked examples in computer-based instruction: focus on the presentation format of worked examples and prior knowledge of learners
Kyun, S. A., & Lee, H. (2009) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-009-9044-x · Cited by 11
El Editor de Partituras como Medio para Facilitar el Estudio de la Lectura Musical Cantada
Galera, M. D. M., Tejada, J., & Sánchez, M. E. T. (2017) · Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology · doi:10.25115/ejrep.v11i29.1564 · Cited by 11
Cognitive Load Theory and the Use of Worked Examples as an Instructional Strategy in Physics for Distance Learners: A Preliminary Study
Saw, K. G. (2017) · Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.17718/tojde.340405 · Cited by 15
Koios: Design, Development, and Evaluation of an Educational Visual Tool for Greek Novice Programmers
Vasilopoulos, I., & van Schaik, P. (2018) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633118781776 · Cited by 12
“…(e) the modality effect, (f) the redundancy effect and (g) the expertise reversal effect (Morrison, 2017; Morrison, 2015; Morrison, Decker, & Margulieux, 2016; Paas & van Merriënboer, 1994; Sweller et al., 1998; van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005; van Mierlo, Jarodzka, Kirschner, & Kirschner, 2011).”
Going beyond performance scores: Understanding cognitive–affective states in Kindergarteners and application of framework in classrooms
Sridhar, P. K., Chan, S., Chua, Y., Yow, W. Q., & Nanayakkara, S. C. (2019) · International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.ijcci.2019.04.002 · Cited by 11
Exploring the usage of thermal imaging for understanding video lecture designs and students' experiences
Srivastava, N., Nawaz, S., Lodge, J. M., Velloso, E., Erfani, S., & Bailey, J. (2020) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3375462.3375514 · Cited by 13
“Examples include electroencephalography (EEG) [19], heart rate [38], electrodermal activity (EDA) [24] Although these techniques could provide biological indicators (less susceptible to user manipulation), these sensors need to be in direct contact with the learners, making them impractical for most environments [39].”
Background
The Impact of Sexualized Video Game Content and Cognitive Load on State Rape Myth Acceptance
Noël, T., Larøi, F., & Burnay, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.614502 · Cited by 11
“Both cognitive load conditions were pre-tested using a dual-task methodology (Paas et al., 1994; Marcus et al., 1996; Brünken et al., 2002).”
Method
Optimizing Scenario-Based Training for Law Enforcement
Jenkins, B., Semple, T., Quail, J., & Bennell, C. (2021) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-6820-0.ch002 · Cited by 12
Instructional Efficiency of Tutoring in an Outreach Gene Technology Laboratory
Scharfenberg, F., & Bogner, F. X. (2012) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-012-9309-y · Cited by 12
Development of procedure for the assessment of cognitive complexity of stoichiometric tasks
Horvat, S. A., Segedinac, M., Milenković, D., & Rončević, T. N. (2016) · Macedonian Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering · doi:10.20450/mjcce.2016.893 · Cited by 12
Evaluación de la eficacia de la formación en la Administración Pública: la transferencia al puesto
de Zárate, A. G. O., García, M. A. A., & Berrocal, F. B. (2017) · Gestión y Análisis de Políticas Públicas · doi:10.24965/gapp.v0i17.10405 · Cited by 11
The effect of leads on cognitive load and learning in a conceptually rich hypertext environment
Antonenko, P. (2007) · Iowa State University Digital Repository (Iowa State University) · doi:10.31274/rtd-180813-16756 · Cited by 12
The Effect of an Instruction Designed by Cognitive Load Theory Principles on 7th Grade Students’ Achievement in Algebra Topics and Cognitive Load
Takır, A., & Aksu, M. (2012) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2012.32037 · Cited by 11
The Role of Needs Assessment to Validate Contextual Factors Related to User Experience Design Practices
Stefaniak, J. E., & Sentz, J. (2020) · Cited by 10
A Semblance of Similarity: Student Categorisation of Simple Algorithmic Problem Statements
Finnie-Ansley, J., Denny, P. C., & Luxton-Reilly, A. (2021) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/3446871.3469745 · Cited by 11
“By removing the need to problem solve while studying, worked examples reduce extraneous cognitive load, thus freeing working memory to assist in schema formation [70, 72].”
Background
A critical reflection on emerging topics in cognitive load research
Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1252 · Cited by 11
Timing of cueing in complex problem-solving tasks: Learner versus system control
Hummel, H. G. K., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Koper, E. J. R. (2004) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.08.001 · Cited by 11
“Variability of practice is considered an essential element for transfer to occur (e.g., Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The unconscious allocation of cognitive resources to task-relevant and task irrelevant thoughts.
Kuldas, S., Hashim, S., Nizam Ismail, H., Ali Samsudin, M., & Bakar, Z. A. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24851328 · Cited by 9
The Role of Visual Feedback and Creative Exploration for the Improvement of Timing Accuracy in Performing Musical Ornaments
Timmers, R., Sadakata, M., & Desain, P. (2012) · Music Perception An Interdisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1525/mp.2012.30.2.187 · Cited by 10
Metacognition in group problem solving—a quest for socially shared metacognition
Hurme, T.-R. (2010) · Cited by 10
Beyond traditional approaches: a partial directed coherence with graph theory-based mental load assessment using EEG modality
Mazher, M., Qayyum, A., Ahmad, I., & Alassafi, M. O. (2020) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-020-05408-2 · Cited by 10
“These methods are based on analytical and empirical approaches [2, 3].”
BackgroundMethod
Towards Understanding Successful Novice Example Use in Blocks-Based Programming
Ichinco, M., Harms, K., & Kelleher, C. (2017) · Journal of Visual Languages and Sentient Systems · doi:10.18293/vlss2017-012 · Cited by 10
From the archive: ‘Managing split‐attention and redundancy in multimedia instruction’ by S. Kalyuga, P. Chandler, & J. Sweller (1999). Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, 351–371 with commentary
Editor, N. B. P. A. –. A. (2011) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1773 · Cited by 10
ID for Competency−based Learning: New Directions for Design, Delivery and Diagnosis
van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2001) · RACO (Revistes Catalanes amb Accés Obert) (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) · Cited by 10
Self-citation
Cognitive Task Complexity, Foreign Language Anxiety and L2 Performance in Spanish: A Task-Based Language Teaching Perspective
Donate, Á. (2018) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 10
Worked Example Effect
Ayres, P. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_20 · Cited by 14
Differentiated measurement of cognitive loads in computer programming
Quintero-Manes, R., & Vieira, C. (2024) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-024-09411-7 · Cited by 14
“Thus, performance is similar to mental effort to the extent that the learner’s prior knowledge and skills can influence the results (Andrade-Loreto, 2012; Paas & Van Merrinboer, 1994; Paas et al., 2003).”
Assessing Construction Near-Miss Detection Proficiency for Workers Under Stressor Conditions Using Psychophysiological Measures: An Eye-Tracking Investigation
Muley, S., Wang, C., Aghazadeh, F., & Bangaru, S. S. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15031558 · Cited by 9
Retrospective Focus Prompts Facilitate Learning From Video Tutorials for Technical Apprenticeship
Schriek, S. A., Berthold, K., & Hefter, M. H. (2025) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70049 · Cited by 9
Designing Reciprocative Dynamic Linking to improve learners’ Representational Competence in interactive learning environments
Patwardhan, M., & Murthy, S. (2017) · Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1186/s41039-017-0046-8 · Cited by 10
“This scale is accepted as a valid method for measuring cognitive load (Kalyuga et al. 1998, 2000; Paas and Van Merrienboer 1994; Van Merriënboer et al. 2002; Yeung et al. 1997).”
BackgroundMethod
Learning to solve ill-defined statistics problems: does self-explanation quality mediate the worked example effect?
Bichler, S., Stadler, M. J., Bühner, M., Greiff, S., & Fischer, F. (2022) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-022-09579-4 · Cited by 10
“To solve these, learners need to apply rule-based or algorithmic procedures (Paas, 1992; Paas & van Merriënboer, 1994; Schwonke et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethod
Explicit instruction in the context of whole-tasks: the effectiveness of the task-centered instructional strategy in computer science education
Rosenberg‐Kima, R. B., Merrill, M., Baylor, A. L., & Johnson, T. E. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10143-7 · Cited by 12
“The participants’ perceived cognitive load was measured using a single-item self-rated scale developed by Paas and Van Merrienboer (1994).”
Method
The Relations between Interface Design of Digital Game-Based Learning Systems and Flow Experience and Cognitive Load of Learners with Different Levels of Prior Knowledge
Shen, C.-Y., & Chu, H.-P. (2014) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-07308-8_55 · Cited by 9
The Use Of Graphic Calculators In Teaching And Learning Of Mathematics:effects On Performance And Metacognitive Awareness
Ridzuan, D., Tarmizi, R. A., Ali, W. Z. W., & Ehsan, S. D. (2004) · Cited by 9
Examination of Bivariate Data Tasks in US High School Textbooks Through the Statistical Investigation and Cognitive Demands Frameworks
Trần, D., & Tarr, J. E. (2017) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-017-9851-1 · Cited by 9
Schools (K–12)
Vahrenhold, J., Cutts, Q. I., & Falkner, K. E. K. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.019 · Cited by 11
Adaptive Expertise
Carbonell, K. B., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198795872.013.12 · Cited by 11
Self-citation
Examining Learning Experience in Two Online Courses Using Web Logs and Experience Sampling Method (ESM)
Park, S. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16504-2_18 · Cited by 11
Rehearsal and verbal reminders in facilitating compliance with safety rules
Molesworth, B. R. C., Tsang, M. H., & Kehoe, E. J. (2011) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2010.11.026 · Cited by 9
The problem-refining progress of 5th graders' ubiquitous inquiry
Hung, P. H., Hwang, G. J., Lee, Y. H., & Wu, T. H. (2011) · International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation · doi:10.1504/ijmlo.2011.045316 · Cited by 9
Kapazitätslimitierung und intellektuelle Leistungsfähigkeit
SCHWEIZER, K. W., & Koch, W. (2001) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1026//0949-3946.48.1.1 · Cited by 9
Dynamic Task Selection in Aviation Training
Salden, R. (2005) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 9
Designing introductory programming courses : the role of cognitive load
Mason, R. (2012) · Cross Connect (Southern Cross University) · Cited by 9
Evaluation of children’s cognitive load in processing and storage of their spatial working memory
Chen, H.-C., Kao, C., Wang, T., & Lai, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.918048 · Cited by 11
Make it or draw it? Investigating the communicative trade-offs between sketches and prototypes
Krishnakumar, S., Letting, C., Johnson, E., Zurita, N. F. S., & Menold, J. (2023) · Design Science · doi:10.1017/dsj.2023.31 · Cited by 8
“Furthermore, the use of subjective scales has been shown to be more accurate and sensitive and is easier to administer compared with more intrusive physiological measures of cognitive load (Paas & Van Merrienboer, 1994).”
BackgroundMethod
The effects of simulator training on the development of creative thinking in law enforcement officers
VerPlanck, J. (2020) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-06-2020-0101 · Cited by 8
Spatial stimuli in films: Uncovering the relationship between cognitive emotion and perceived environmental quality
Sakhaei, H., Biloria, N. M., & Looha, M. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.940882 · Cited by 8
Comparing the Experiences of Live Coding versus Static Code Examples for Students and Instructors
Watkins, A., Miller, C. S., & Settle, A. (2024) · doi:10.1145/3649217.3653562 · Cited by 8
“Worked examples are thought to reduce cognitive load and improve learning by providing complete solutions to problems for student use [12, 28].”
Background
Does an agent matter?: The Effects of Animated Pedagogical Agents on Multimedia Environments
Gholson, B., & Craig, S. D. (2002) · EdMedia: World Conference on Educational Media and Technology · Cited by 8
The Effect of Accents on Cognitive Load and Achievement: The Relationship between Students' Accent Perception and Accented Voice Instructions in Students' Achievement
Ahn, J. (2010) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 8
Effects of instructional aids on the acquisition of dynamic decision-making skills
Frederiksen, C., Kehoe, E. J., & Wood, R. E. (2011) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.01.002 · Cited by 8
Cognitive Load in Collaboration--Convergence
Kolfschoten, G. L., & Brazier, F. M. T. (2012) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.1109/hicss.2012.156 · Cited by 8
Cognitive Load Theory and Mathematics Learning: A Systematic Review
Aditomo, A. (2009) · ANIMA Indonesian Psychological Journal · doi:10.24123/aipj.v24i3.4427 · Cited by 8
“( Paas & van Merrienboer, 1994, p. 123).”
Task Variation and Mental Models Divergence Influencing the Transfer of Team Learning
Toader, A. F., & Kessler, T. (2018) · Small Group Research · doi:10.1177/1046496418786429 · Cited by 7
“Contrarily, it may also be possible that task variation and mental models divergence offer long-term advantages (e.g., McDaniel & Schlager, 1990; Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994).”
Background
Developing a New Generation MOOC (ngMOOC): A Design-Based Implementation Research Project with Cognitive Architecture and Student Feedback in Mind
Woolcott, G., Seton, C., Mason, R., Chen, O., Lake, W., Markopoulos, C., & Boyd, W. E. (2019) · European Journal of Open Distance and E-Learning · doi:10.2478/eurodl-2019-0002 · Cited by 8
“…principles has given rise to a set of identified cognitive load effects that can be applied in a number of different learning modalities to improve learning (Sweller et al., 2011, and see also Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 2000; Paas & van Merriënboer, 1994; van Merriënboer & De Croock, 1992).”
Background
Effects of Gamification on Active and Reflective Learners' Engagement and Cognitive Load
Topu, F. B. (2023) · Kuramsal Eğitimbilim · doi:10.30831/akukeg.1130771 · Cited by 11
“Cognitive Load Scale was applied by Paas and Van Merriënboer (1994) and was calculated the reliability coefficient of this scale as α =.82.”
Method
Comparison of different approaches on example-based learning for novice and proficient learners
Huang, Y., Lin, K.-C., Xiang, Y., & Hung, J. C.-S. (2015) · Human-centric Computing and Information Sciences · doi:10.1186/s13673-015-0048-8 · Cited by 8
“” This scale is widely used in educational research [2, 25, 26].”
Background

Authors: Paas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G.
Affiliations: Maastricht University (NL)
ORCID: Paas, Fred G. W. C.
Van Merriënboer, Jeroen J. G.
Venue: Journal of Educational Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1994-03
Volume: 86
Issue: 1
Pages: 122-133
ISSN: 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
1939-2176
DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122
OpenAlex: W2116669434
Cited by: 1,198
References: 52
Citations by year: 2026: 69 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 89 · 2018: 42 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 69 · 2013: 62 · 2012: 59
FWCI: 7.63
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
research.utwente.nl
Licence: other-oa
Locations: Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
University of Twente Research Information (publishedVersion, other-oa)
University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
Keywords: worked examples, transfer of learning, cognitive load, computer-based training, practice questions, cognitive effort, training performance

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-12 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Self-check

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks