Cited by 1,198Visual and Cognitive Learning ProcessesInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsIntelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 39 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach.

Open access

Paas, Fred G. W. C., Van Merriënboer, Jeroen J. G.·1994·Journal of Educational Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Four computer-based training strategies for geometrical problem solving in the domain of computer numerically controlled machinery programming were studied with regard to their effects on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load. A low- and a high-variability conventional condition, in which conventional practice problems had to be solved (followed by worked examples), were compared with a low- and a high-variability worked condition, in which worked examples had to be studied. Results showed that students who studied worked examples gained most from high-variability examples, invested less time and mental effort in practice, and attained better and less effort-demanding transfer performance than students who first attempted to solve conventional problems and then studied work examples. In complex cognitive domains such as mathematics, phys-ics, or computer programming, problem solutions can often be characterized by a hierarchical goal structure. The goal of these solutions can be attained only by successfully attaining all subgoals. Learning and performance of complex cogni-tive tasks are typically constrained by limited processing ca-

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122

Cites

39 of 39 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

The text we found for this paper looks like another document, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The text we found for this paper looks like another document, so the self-check wasn’t run.

Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.127 · Cited by 7,335
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.1.1 · Cited by 5,902
A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.1.122 · Cited by 4,153
Handbook of perception and human performance
Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L., & Thomas, J. P. (1986) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 4,033
Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2 · Cited by 2,894
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I
Schneider, W. E., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Cited by 2,228
Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive-load approach.
Paas, F. G. W. C. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.429 · Cited by 2,150
Self-citation
Self‐Explanations: How Students Study and Use Examples in Learning to Solve Problems
Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1302_1 · Cited by 1,714
Instructional control of cognitive load in the training of complex cognitive tasks
Paas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf02213420 · Cited by 968
Self-citation

Show all 52 references

Sorted by citations

Items 101–200 of 1,170

The instructor’s face in video instruction: Evidence from two large-scale field studies.
Kizilcec, R. F., Bailenson, J. N., & Gomez, C. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000013 · Cited by 236
“The effort scale was adapted from the mental effort scale used in prior cognitive load research (e.g., Paas, 1992; Paas & van MerriËnboer, 1994, who measured mental effort induced by different computerbased training strategies; see Brünken, Plass, & Leutner, 2003, for a theoretical account of…”
Method
The Development of Cognitive Load Theory: Replication Crises and Incorporation of Other Theories Can Lead to Theory Expansion
Sweller, J. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09817-2 · Cited by 220
How variability shapes learning and generalization
Raviv, L., Lupyan, G., & Green, C. S. (2022) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2022.03.007 · Cited by 237
“increased variability may also be expected to hinder learning’ [62]”
Background
Cognitive load theory and individual differences
Sweller, J. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102423 · Cited by 214
The worked-example effect: Not an artefact of lousy control conditions
Schwonke, R., Renkl, A., Krieg, C., Wittwer, J., Aleven, V. A. W. M. M., & Salden, R. (2008) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.011 · Cited by 215
Cognitive Load and Learner Expertise: Split-Attention and Redundancy Effects in Reading with Explanatory Notes
Yeung, A. S., Jin, P., & Sweller, J. (1998) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1006/ceps.1997.0951 · Cited by 208
Measuring cognitive load with subjective rating scales during problem solving: differences between immediate and delayed ratings
Schmeck, A., Opfermann, M., van Gog, T., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Leutner, D. (2014) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-014-9328-3 · Cited by 235
“…load directly after each problem solving step or task, and used the average of these cognitive load ratings as an indicator of the overall cognitive load imposed by the learning task(s) (e.g., Opfermann 2008; Paas 1992; Paas and van Merrie¨nboer 1994; Tabbers et al. 2004; Van Gog et al. 2006).”
Self-citation
Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency
Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F. G. W. C., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. (2002) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00017-2 · Cited by 205
“Moreover, these findings imply that worked examples offer the opportunity to add germane cognitive load, for example by increasing the example variability (Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994b).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Cognitive Load Theory: Historical Development and Relation to Other Theories
Moreno, R., & Park, B. (2010) · Cognitive Load Theory · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.003 · Cited by 204
Process-Oriented Worked Examples: Improving Transfer Performance Through Enhanced Understanding
van Gog, T., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021810.70784.b0 · Cited by 206
“There are two different approaches to effective instructional strategies for bringing about transfer: process approaches and product approaches ( Paas and Van Merrienboer 1994a ).”
Self-citation
The Expertise Reversal Effect is a Variant of the More General Element Interactivity Effect
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2017) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-016-9359-1 · Cited by 200
The impact of web-based worked examples and self-explanation on performance, problem solving, and self-efficacy
Crippen, K. J., & Earl, B. L. (2005) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.11.018 · Cited by 212
“Well-structured problems have an accepted answer and require students to use a mental heuristic to determine an appropriate algorithm for generating a problem solution.”
Background
Research into Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design at UNSW
Cooper, G. A. (2008) · Cited by 196
Working Memory, Long-term Memory, and Instructional Design
Sweller, J. (2016) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2015.12.002 · Cited by 192
Effects of studying sequences of process-oriented and product-oriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer efficiency
van Gog, T., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2007) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.03.003 · Cited by 202
“by worked examples are for example increasing variability ( Paas & Van Merrienboer, 1994 ), or”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Perspectives on problem solving and instruction
van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.11.025 · Cited by 187
Cognitive Load and Working Memory in Multimedia Learning: Conceptual and Measurement Issues
Anmarkrud, Ø., Andresen, A., & Bråten, I. (2019) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2018.1554484 · Cited by 188
Learner Experience and Efficiency of Instructional Guidance
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2001) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410124681 · Cited by 192
Measuring Cognitive Load
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_6 · Cited by 226
Novice Programmers and Introductory Programming
Robins, A. V. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.013 · Cited by 191
The worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity.
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000018 · Cited by 167
“Solving problems is inferior to studying worked examples but requires more effort than studying worked examples (Paas, 1992; Paas & van Merrienboer, 1994), contradicting the cognitive effort hypothesis; takes longer than studying worked examples (Cooper & Sweller, 1987; Sweller & Cooper, 1985),…”
Method
The Four-Component Instructional Design Model: Multimedia Principles in Environments for Complex Learning
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kester, L. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.007 · Cited by 162
Self-citation
Toward a Synthesis of Cognitive Load Theory, Four-Component Instructional Design, and Self-Directed Learning
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sluijsmans, D. M. A. (2009) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-008-9092-5 · Cited by 156
“In the context of cognitive load theory and 4C/ID, most research on instructional methods promoting germane cognitive load has been dealing with variability of learning tasks (e.g., Paas and van Merrienboer 1994; Quilici and Mayer 1996) and self-explanation and reflection prompts (e.g., Renkl 1997; Stark et al. 2002;…”
Background
Instructional design of a programming course
Caspersen, M. E., & Bennedsen, J. (2007) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/1288580.1288595 · Cited by 160
“3 Variability effect Worked examples with high variability increase cognitive load and learning (provided that intrinsic cognitive load is sufficiently low); identification of this effect lead to the notion of germane cognitive load [47].”
Background
Validating theta power as an objective measure of cognitive load in educational video
Castro-Meneses, L. J., Kruger, J., & Doherty, S. (2019) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-019-09681-4 · Cited by 162
Differential effects of problem-solving demands on individual and collaborative learning outcomes
Kirschner, F., PAAS, F. G. W. C., Kirschner, P. A., & Janssen, J. J. H. M. (2011) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.01.001 · Cited by 175
“When it is beneficial to learning, for example when it presents students with highvariability materials (Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994), or encourages students to self-explain their actions (e.g., Renkl, 1997), it is referred to as germane cognitive load (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2004; Sweller, Van…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Learning to Solve Compare Word Problems: The Effect of Example Format and Generating Self-Explanations
Mwangi, W., & Sweller, J. (1998) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1602_2 · Cited by 156
Measuring cognitive load in introductory CS: adaptation of an instrument
Morrison, B. B., Dorn, B., & Guzdial, M. (2014) · Proceedings of the tenth annual conference on International computing education research · doi:10.1145/2632320.2632348 · Cited by 147
“Researchers have used measurements of heart rates [28], pupillary response [39], EEGs [1], and eye tracking [43, 38].”
BackgroundMethod
Selecting learning tasks: Effects of adaptation and shared control on learning efficiency and task involvement
Corbalan, G., Kester, L., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.02.003 · Cited by 153
Self-citation
Bridging Cognitive Load and Self-Regulated Learning Research: A complementary approach to contemporary issues in educational research
de Bruin, A. B. H., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.06.001 · Cited by 146
Virtual reality: A new method to investigate cognitive load during navigation
Armougum, A., Orriols, É., Gaston‐Bellegarde, A., Marle, C. J.-L., & Piolino, P. (2019) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.101338 · Cited by 162
Perceptual Learning, Cognition, and Expertise
(2013) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-407237-4.00004-9 · Cited by 163
4C/ID in medical education: How to design an educational program based on whole-task learning: AMEE Guide No. 93
Vandewaetere, M., Manhaeve, D., Aertgeerts, B., Clarebout, G., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Roex, A. (2014) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.3109/0142159x.2014.928407 · Cited by 144
“…task variability within a task class, i.e. taking into consideration many real world contexts that may be encountered by experts in the subject matter domain, should enable learners to develop rich cognitive schemata, which allow for schema-based transfer of learning (Paas & van Merrie¨nboer 1994).”
Self-citation
Measuring Cognitive Load
Brünken, R., Seufert, T., & Paas, F. (2010) · Cognitive Load Theory · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.011 · Cited by 143
Self-citation
Redundancy in foreign language reading comprehension instruction: Concurrent written and spoken presentations
Diao, Y., & Sweller, J. (2007) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.11.007 · Cited by 153
Systematic Mathematical Errors and Cognitive Load
Ayres, P. (2001) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1006/ceps.2000.1051 · Cited by 143
Resisting Overzealous Transfer: Coordinating Previously Successful Routines With Needs for New Learning
Schwartz, D. L., Chase, C. C., & Bransford, J. D. (2012) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2012.696317 · Cited by 146
“All of these are known to support transfer (eg, Brown & Kane, 1988 ; Gick & Holyoak, 1983 ; Pass & Van Merrienboer, 1994 ).”
Background
Example-Tracing Tutors: Intelligent Tutor Development for Non-programmers
Aleven, V. A. W. M. M., McLaren, B. M., Sewall, J., van Velsen, M., Popescu, O., Demi, S., Ringenberg, M. A., & Koedinger, K. R. (2016) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-015-0088-2 · Cited by 153
Enhancing mental models, analogical transfer, and performance in strategic decision making
Gary, M. S., Wood, R. E., & Pillinger, T. (2012) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.1979 · Cited by 137
Learning and understanding science instructional material.
Carlson, R., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.3.629 · Cited by 144
Linking Student Achievement Growth to Professional Development Participation and Changes in Instruction: A Longitudinal Study of Elementary Students and Teachers in Title I Schools
Desimone, L. M., Smith, T. M., & Phillips, K. J. R. (2013) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811311500508 · Cited by 135
Example-Based Learning in Heuristic Domains: A Cognitive Load Theory Account
Renkl, A., Hilbert, T. S., & Schworm, S. (2008) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-008-9093-4 · Cited by 148
“University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany from worked examples is more effective for initial cognitive skill acquisition than the more traditional method of problem solving (e.g., Paas and van Merrienboer 1994 ; Z hu and Simon 1987).”
Method
Dynamic problem selection in air traffic control training: a comparison between performance, mental effort and mental efficiency
Camp, G., PAAS, F. G. W. C., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2001) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(01)00028-0 · Cited by 141
Self-citation
Student Learning: What Has Instruction Got to Do With It?
Lee, H. S., & Anderson, J. R. (2012) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143833 · Cited by 150
Exploring Multidimensional Approaches to the Efficiency of Instructional Conditions
Tuovinen, J. E., & Paas, F. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021813.24669.62 · Cited by 134
“Paas and Van Merrienboer (1993) ME, P Paas and Van Merrienboer (1994b) ME, P Cerpa, Chandler, and Sweller (1996) ME P Marcus, Cooper and Sweller (1996) ME P Tindall-Ford, Chandler, and Sweller (1997) ME P Yeung, Jin, and Sweller (1997) ME P Kalyuga, Chandler, and Sweller (1998) ME P Kalyuga, Chandler, and Sweller (199…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Educational Implications of Expertise Reversal Effects in Learning and Performance of Complex Cognitive and Sensorimotor Skills
Kalyuga, S., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9195-x · Cited by 154
Self-citation
Timing and Frequency of Mental Effort Measurement: Evidence in Favour of Repeated Measures
van Gog, T., Kirschner, F., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2883 · Cited by 130
Self-citation
Applying Cognitive Theory to Statistics Instruction
Lovett, M. C., & Greenhouse, J. B. (2000) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.2000.10474545 · Cited by 128
“In particular, one line of inquiry involves developing and testing unied theories of cognition that are implemented as computer models (see Newell 1990 ).”
Background
A systematic review of immersive technologies for education: Learning performance, cognitive load and intrinsic motivation
Poupard, M., Larrue, F., Sauzeon, H., & Tricot, A. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13503 · Cited by 173
Measuring cognitive load
Sweller, J. (2018) · Perspectives on Medical Education · doi:10.1007/s40037-017-0395-4 · Cited by 152
The impact of media multitasking on learning
Lee, J., Lin, L., & Robertson, T. (2012) · Learning, Media and Technology · doi:10.1080/17439884.2010.537664 · Cited by 128
“Cognitive load is defined as a ‘multidimensional construct representing the load that performing a particular task imposes on the learner’s cognitive system’ (Paas and van Merrienboer 1994 , 122).”
Background
Cognitive Load Theory: New Directions and Challenges
Ayres, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2882 · Cited by 148
Self-citation
The Cambridge Handbook of Computing Education Research
Fincher, S., Robins, A. V., Margulieux, L. E., Morrison, B. B., Shephard, K., Loui, M., Borrego, M., Lancaster, T., Falkner, K., Sheard, J., et al. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555 · Cited by 141
The efficiency of multimedia learning into old age
Gerven, P. W. M. V., PAAS, F. G. W. C., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Hendriks, M., & Schmidt, H. G. (2003) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709903322591208 · Cited by 126
Self-citation
Schema Acquisition and Sources of Cognitive Load
Kalyuga, S. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.005 · Cited by 133
A Response-Time Model for Bottom-Out Hints as Worked Examples
Shih, B., Koedinger, K. R., & Scheines, R. (2010) · Chapman & Hall/CRC data mining and knowledge discovery series · doi:10.1201/b10274-17 · Cited by 123
“There is significant evidence to suggest that optimal learning comes from a mix of worked examples and scaffolded problems[11].”
Background
A Systematic Meta-analysis of the Reliability and Validity of Subjective Cognitive Load Questionnaires in Experimental Multimedia Learning Research
Krieglstein, F., Beege, M., Rey, G. D., Ginns, P., Krell, M., & Schneider, S. (2022) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-022-09683-4 · Cited by 167
“This assessment is usually made after learning has taken place (Jiang & Kalyuga, 2020; Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994).”
BackgroundMethod
Increasing the effectiveness of digital educational games: The effects of a learning instruction on students’ learning, motivation and cognitive load
Hawlitschek, A., & Joeckel, S. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.040 · Cited by 119
Cognitive Load Theory for debriefing simulations: implications for faculty development
Fraser, K. L., Meguerdichian, M. J., Haws, J. T., Grant, V. J., Bajaj, K., & Cheng, A. (2018) · Advances in Simulation · doi:10.1186/s41077-018-0086-1 · Cited by 124
Just-in-time information presentation and the acquisition of complex cognitive skills
Kester, L., Kirschner, P. A., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Baumer, A. (2001) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(01)00011-5 · Cited by 119
Self-citation
Flipped Classroom Versus Traditional Textbook Instruction: Assessing Accuracy and Mental Effort at Different Levels of Mathematical Complexity
Mattis, K. V. (2014) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-014-9238-0 · Cited by 131
Can collaborative learning improve the effectiveness of worked examples in learning mathematics?
Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2016) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000167 · Cited by 115
The management of cognitive load during complex cognitive skill acquisition by means of computer‐simulated problem solving
Kester, L., Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2005) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709904x19254 · Cited by 115
Self-citation
Using eye-tracking technology to investigate the redundant effect of multimedia web pages on viewers’ cognitive processes
Liu, H., Lai, M.-L., & Chuang, H. (2011) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.06.012 · Cited by 118
“Based on Paivio’s (1986) dual-channel theory and Sweller’s cognitive-load theory, Mayer (2001) proposed a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, arguing that information encoded in different formats is cognitively processed through two separate channels.”
Method
Interactive and dynamic visualizations in teaching and learning of anatomy: A cognitive load perspective
Khalil, M. K., PAAS, F. G. W. C., Johnson, T. E., & Payer, A. F. (2005) · The Anatomical Record Part B The New Anatomist · doi:10.1002/ar.b.20077 · Cited by 119
Self-citation
The Evolution of Cognitive Load Theory and the Measurement of Its Intrinsic, Extraneous and Germane Loads: A Review
Orrú, G., & Longo, L. (2019) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-14273-5_3 · Cited by 145
“This view is supported by Paas and colleagues that refers to extraneous load as the cognitive effect of instructional designs that hamper the construction of schema in working memory [19].”
Background
When worked examples don't work: Is cognitive load theory at an Impasse?
Moreno, R. (2006) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.02.006 · Cited by 126
Mental Effort and Performance as Determinants for the Dynamic Selection of Learning Tasks in Air Traffic Control Training
Salden, R., PAAS, F. G. W. C., Broers, N. J., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021814.03996.ff · Cited by 113
“And the third method investigated which instruction led to the highest test performance combined with the lowest mental effort during the test ( Paas and Van Merrienboer 1993, 1994 ).”
MethodSelf-citation
Examining the learning effects of live streaming video game instruction over Twitch
Payne, K., Keith, M. J., Schuetzler, R. M., & Giboney, J. S. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.029 · Cited by 117
“2) explaining the performance of learning based on worked examples over Twitch is based on CL theory (Paas & Van Merri € enboer, 1994; Sweller & Cooper, 1985; Sweller, 1988) and our speci ﬁ c hypotheses are formulated around the unique characteristics of live-streaming platforms like Twitch.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
High versus low contextual interference in simulation-based training of troubleshooting skills: effects on transfer performance and invested mental effort
de Croock, M. B. M., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(98)00005-3 · Cited by 107
Self-citation
Worked example or scripting? Fostering students’ online argumentative peer feedback, essay writing and learning
Latifi, S., Noroozi, O., & Talaee, E. (2023) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2020.1799032 · Cited by 107
The efficiency of worked examples compared to erroneous examples, tutored problem solving, and problem solving in computer-based learning environments
McLaren, B. M., van Gog, T., Ganoe, C. H., Karabinos, M., & Yaron, D. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.038 · Cited by 117
Learning from worked-examples in mathematics: students relate procedures to principles
Renkl, A. (2017) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-017-0859-3 · Cited by 106
Detecting Users’ Cognitive Load by Galvanic Skin Response with Affective Interference
Nourbakhsh, N., Chen, F., Wang, Y., & Calvo, R. A. (2017) · ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1145/2960413 · Cited by 121
“Finally, several physiological signals have been used for cognitive load measurement, including, but not limited to signals from heart [32], eye [45], brain [2], muscles [22], and skin [29, 38, 44].”
Method
An Open Repository and analysis tools for fine-grained, longitudinal learner data.
Koedinger, K. R., Cunningham, K., Skogsholm, A., & Leber, B. (2008) · Educational Data Mining · Cited by 108
Conditions and effects of example elaboration
Stark, R., Mandl, H., Gruber, H., & Renkl, A. (2002) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00015-9 · Cited by 105
When and how often should worked examples be given to students? New results and a summary of the current state of research
McLaren, B. M., Lim, S.-J., & Koedinger, K. R. (2008) · Cited by 106
Pedagogical Agent Signaling of Multiple Visual Engineering Representations: The Case of the Young Female Agent
Johnson, A. M., Özoğul, G., Moreno, R., & Martin Reisslein, B. (2013) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20009 · Cited by 108
Getting the point: Tracing worked examples enhances learning
Hu, F., Ginns, P., & Bobis, J. (2014) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.10.002 · Cited by 112
“Paas et al. (1994) introduced a 9-point subjective rating scale of perceived mental effort, based on two earlier studies by Paas (1992) and Paas and Van Merriënboer (1994b).”
Method
The effects of the number of links and navigation support on cognitive load and learning with hypertext: The mediating role of reading order
Ignacio Madrid, R., Van Oostendorp, H., & Puerta Melguizo, M. C. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.06.005 · Cited by 99
“Cognitive-Load Theory (Kirschner, 2002; Paas & Merriënboer, 1994; Sweller, 1988) assumes a working-memory architecture (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley & Logie, 1999) that can be viewed as a system of limited capacity that can only handle a limited number of elements at the same time.”
Background
Training higher education teachers for instructional design of competency-based education: Product-oriented versus process-oriented worked examples
Hoogveld, A. W. M., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Jochems, W. M. G. (2005) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2005.01.002 · Cited by 106
“Paas (1992) and Paas and van Merrienboer (1994) even found that a”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Rate or Trade? Identifying Winning Ideas in Open Idea Sourcing
Blohm, I., Riedl, C., Füller, J., & Leimeister, J. M. (2016) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.2015.0605 · Cited by 98
GSR and Blink Features for Cognitive Load Classification
Nourbakhsh, N., Wang, Y., & Chen, F. (2013) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-40483-2_11 · Cited by 98
“Several physiological signals have been used for cognitive load measurement: signals from heart [20], eye [27], brain [2, 12] and skin [17].”
Method
Scaling Up Programming by Demonstration for Intelligent Tutoring Systems Development: An Open-Access Web Site for Middle School Mathematics Learning
Aleven, V. A. W. M. M., McLaren, B. M., & Sewall, J. (2009) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2009.22 · Cited by 94
“More generally, problem variability is desirable [42].”
Background
A randomized controlled trial of interleaved mathematics practice
Rohrer, D., Dedrick, R. F., Hartwig, M. K., & Cheung, C.-N. (2020) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000367 · Cited by 90
“In fact, in numerous studies, mathematics practice problems were more effective when the problems were altered in ways that reduce cognitive load, which is akin to working memory load (e.g., Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994; Sweller, 1994).”
Ten Steps to Complex Learning: A New Approach to Instruction and Instructional Design
Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412964012.n26 · Cited by 102
Self-citation
Facilitating Flexible Problem Solving: A Cognitive Load Perspective
Kalyuga, S., Renkl, A., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9132-9 · Cited by 92
Self-citation
Training peer-feedback skills on geometric construction tasks: role of domain knowledge and peer-feedback levels
Alqassab, M., Strijbos, J.-W., & Ufer, S. (2018) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-017-0342-0 · Cited by 92
Cognitive Load Theory: What It Is, Why It's Important for Accounting Instruction and Research
Mostyn, G. R. (2011) · Issues in Accounting Education · doi:10.2308/iace-50099 · Cited by 91
Cognitive Load Theory: Advances in Research on Worked Examples, Animations, and Cognitive Load Measurement
van Gog, T., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Sweller, J. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9145-4 · Cited by 115
Self-citation
The Power of Examples: Illustrative Examples Enhance Conceptual Learning of Declarative Concepts
Rawson, K. A., Thomas, R. C., & Jacoby, L. L. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9273-3 · Cited by 89
An EEG-Based Cognitive Load Assessment in Multimedia Learning Using Feature Extraction and Partial Directed Coherence
Mazher, M., Aziz, A. B. A., Malik, A. S., & Amin, H. U. (2017) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2017.2731784 · Cited by 88
“In prior studies, researchers have used analytical and empirical methods to measure cognitive load [1], [8].”
Method
Effect of multitasking, physical environment and electroencephalography use on cognitive load and retention
Örün, Ö., & Akbulut, Y. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.027 · Cited by 87
The worked example and expertise reversal effect in less structured tasks: Learning to reason about legal cases
Nievelstein, F., van Gog, T., DIJCK, G. V., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2012) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.12.004 · Cited by 102
“…mainly studied using well-structured cognitive tasks such as algebra (e.g., Sweller & Cooper, 1985), statistics (e.g., Paas, 1992), geometry (e.g., Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994; Schwonke et al., 2009), mechanics(e.g., Kalyuga et al., 2001), chemistry (McLaren et al., 2008), or physics (e.g.,…”
Influential
Instructional designs for the development of transferable knowledge and skills: A cognitive load perspective
Kalyuga, S. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.019 · Cited by 95
Processing fluency in education: How metacognitive feelings shape learning, belief formation, and affect
Reber, R., & Greifeneder, R. (2017) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2016.1258173 · Cited by 87
Instructional compensation for age-related cognitive declines: Effects of goal specificity in maze learning.
Paas, F., Camp, G., & Rikers, R. (2001) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.181 · Cited by 87
Self-citation
Instructional efficiency of animation: effects of interactivity through mental reconstruction of static key frames
Paas, F., Van Gerven, P. W. M., & Wouters, P. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1349 · Cited by 84
Self-citation
Research Commentary: The Effects of Spacing and Mixing Practice Problems
Rohrer, D. (2009) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc.40.1.0004 · Cited by 88
Worked example effects in individual and group work settings
Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2010) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443411003659960 · Cited by 103

Authors: Paas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G.
Affiliations: Maastricht University (NL)
ORCID: Paas, Fred G. W. C.
Van Merriënboer, Jeroen J. G.
Venue: Journal of Educational Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1994-03
Volume: 86
Issue: 1
Pages: 122-133
ISSN: 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
1939-2176
DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122
OpenAlex: W2116669434
Cited by: 1,198
References: 52
Citations by year: 2026: 69 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 89 · 2018: 42 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 69 · 2013: 62 · 2012: 59
FWCI: 7.63
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
research.utwente.nl
Licence: other-oa
Locations: Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
University of Twente Research Information (publishedVersion, other-oa)
University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
Keywords: worked examples, transfer of learning, cognitive load, computer-based training, practice questions, cognitive effort, training performance

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-12 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Self-check

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks