The DOI matches its Crossref record; 25 of the 25 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 22 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation.
Open accessAbstract
This experiment tested whether proximal goal setting could cultivate competencies, self-percepts of efficacy, and intrinsic interest.
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Claims the paper makes
71 Own result · 31 No basis given · 21 Own interpretation · 10 Own method · 4 Not checked yet · 3 Sources not found · 2 No full text of the sources · 1 Supported so far
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“intrinsic interest in arithmetic activities that initially held little attraction for them”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The number of subtraction problems children solved under permissive choice conditions is a valid measure of their intrinsic interest in arithmetic.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“developed a sense of personal efficacy”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The children's substantial quantitative deficiencies were further confirmed by standardized measures of their mathematical ability obtained from the school district on three subtests of the Metropolitan Achievement Test (Durost, Bixler, Wrightstone, Prescott, & Balow, 1970).They occupied the bottom percentile ranks in computation (22), concepts (27), and problem solving (22).”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Mathematical performance test.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Durost, Bixler, Wrightstone, Prescott, & Balow, 1970
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Distal goals had no demonstrable effects.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Perceived self-efficacy was positively related to accuracy of mathematical performance”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“goal proximity fostered veridical self-knowledge of capabilities as reflected in high congruence between judgments of mathematical self-efficacy and subsequent mathematical performance.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pilot work in the development of the test procedures revealed that children who do not fully comprehend subtraction operations fail to grasp the nature of their deficiency because they faithfully apply an erroneous algorithm.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Mathematical performance test.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Perceived self-efficacy was positively related to accuracy of mathematical performance and to intrinsic interest in arithmetic activities.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Rests on an assumption: The number of subtraction problems children solved under permissive choice conditions is a valid measure of their intrinsic interest in arithmetic.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“achieved substantial mastery of mathematical operations”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Perceived self-efficacy was accompanied by high-performance attainments and perseverence under conditions in which such a relationship would be expected to obtain.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 26
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
- Probably not a substantial claim. 13
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Self-percepts of efficacy can affect people's choice of activities, how much effort they expend, and how long they will persist in the face of difficulties (Bandura, 1977a;Brown & Inouye, 1978;Schunk, 1981).”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bandura, 1977a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Inouye, 1978 source
- Supportedcites Schunk, 1981 source
The article text following the Abstract states that perceived self-efficacy influences choice of activities, effort expenditure, and persistence in the face of difficulties. This directly supports the attributed paraphrase. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Under proximal subgoals, children progressed rapidly in self-directed learning”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The selected sample of children indeed exhibited gross deficits; one third could not solve a single problem, and another third could only solve one.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Mathematical performance test.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contrasts between the means of the different treatment conditions show the children in the proximal condition to be much more skilled than those in the distal (p < .01),no-goals (p < .01),or control (p < .01),conditions.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Mathematical Performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas the controls, who solved only 5% of the problems in pretest and only 8% in posttest, remained grossly deficient in this regard.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Mathematical Performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In most instances the children erred by overestimating their capabilities.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Congruence Between Self-Efficacy Judgment and Performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who had the benefit of proximal subgoals substantially increased their perceived self-efficacy and exhibited even further gains following the performance posttest.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Perceived Self-Efficacy
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, children in the other conditions generally expressed self-doubts concerning their capabilities and showed little spontaneous interest in solving arithmetic problems.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Standardized measures of mathematical competence, based on the Metropolitan Achievement Test, did not predict rate of skill acquisition or degree of self-efficacy enhancement.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Correlational Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Analyses of intragroup changes presented in Table 1 show that the increased perseverence of the proximally self-motivated children and the diminished effort of the controls are highly significant.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Persistence
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although interest was positively related to self-percepts of efficacy derived from performance attainments in treatment, it was uncorrelated with the performance attainments themselves.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Correlational Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children oriented toward distal goals displayed a moderate increase in selfefficacy but a small decline after the posttest.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Perceived Self-Efficacy
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Multiple comparisons among groups in the posttest assessment disclose that children in each of the treatment conditions, although not differing from each other, were all significantly more persevering than were the controls (Table 1).”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Persistence
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children in all groups performed a comparable number of digit-symbol items and did not differ in this respect (F = 0.77).”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Intrinsic Interest
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The more competent children were at mathematical computation, r(38) = .42,p < .01,and problem solving, r(38) = .58,p < .001, the more subtraction problems they completed in the free-choice situation.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Correlational Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By the end of the four sessions, the percentage of the total instructional material completed was 74% in the proximal condition, 55% in the distal condition, and 53% in the condition involving no goals.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Progress in Self-Directed Learning
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, 90% of the children who developed their arithmetic skill through the aid of proximal subgoals performed subtraction problems under the free-choice conditions; whereas only about 40% of the children in the other groups did so.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Intrinsic Interest
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Analysis of persistence on the easy arithmetic items revealed no differences except for the controls, who were significantly less persevering (-31%) when tested again.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Persistence
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: Children who gain high self-efficacy through skill acquisition solve problems readily and therefore need not spend much time on them.
- Rests on an assumption: An aggregate measure of persistence spanning the entire range of difficulty is not too meaningful because long perseverence times on hard problems are offset by rapid solutions of less difficult ones.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 1 shows that in accurateness of self-appraisal, the proximally self-motivated children exceed other experimental groups, which do not differ significantly from each other.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Congruence Between Self-Efficacy Judgment and Performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children in the distal condition also exceeded the controls in self-efficacy, but they did not differ significantly from those who set no goals for themselves.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Perceived Self-Efficacy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both instructional performance, r(28) = .33,p < .05,and strength of self-efficacy, r(38) = .42,p < .01,were moderately related to the children's facility in using subtractive operations.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Correlational Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but both groups outperformed the controls.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Mathematical Performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Inspection of Table 1 shows that children in the proximal subgoal condition exceeded all three comparison groups, which did not differ from each other.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Intrinsic Interest
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Correlation of the latter measures shows that variations in mean strength of self-efficacy covaried with interest in the control and the no-goals conditions, r(18) = .39,p < .05,but not in the goal-setting treatments.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Correlational Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most of the activities that people enjoy doing for their own sake originally had little or no interest for them.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The instructions, format, and materials for the self-directed study were identical across treatment conditions except for variations in goal setting.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Treatment Conditions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Under conditions in which external imperatives are minimal and discontinuous, people must partly serve as agents of their own motivation and action.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By having children in different treatments pursue separately the self-directed learning in the same setting at the same time, social and situational factors that might otherwise vary were comparable across treatment conditions.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Procedure for Self-Directed Learning
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although results are somewhat variable, the usual finding is that rewards given regardless of quality of performance tend to reduce interest, whereas rewards for performances signifying competence sustain high interest (Boggiano & Ruble, 1979;Enzle & Ross, 1978;Lepper & Greene, 1979;Ross, 1976).”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children were assigned randomly to one of three treatment conditions or to a nontreated control group.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Treatment Conditions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To control for any possible bias, the testers had no knowledge of the conditions to which the children had been assigned.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Posttreatment Assessment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Operative competence thus requires flexible orchestration of multiple subskills.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both forms were administered in a counterbalanced order to a sample of 17 children who were not participants in the formal study.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Posttreatment Assessment
plainn = 17- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, through favorable continued involvement, almost any activity can become imbued with consuming significance.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The controversy over the effects of extrinsic rewards on preexisting high interest has led to a neglect of the issue of how intrinsic interest is developed when it is lacking.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This form of self-motivation, which operates largely through internal comparison processes, re-quires personal standards against which to evaluate ongoing performance.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children who set themselves attainable subgoals progressed rapidly in self-directed learning, achieved substantial mastery of mathematical operations, and heightened their perceived self-efficacy and interest in activities that initially held little attraction for them.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The link between boosts in perceived self-efficacy and sustained involvement in challenging activities is now well established across a wide range of behavioral domains (Bandura, 1981;Brown & Inouye, 1978;Weinberg, Gould, & Jackson, 1979;Schunk, 1981;Condiotte & Lichtenstein, in press).”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Discussion
What the sources say
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consequently, interest fails to develop, even though skills are being acquired in the process.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Judgments of one's capabilities can affect rate of skill acquisition, and performance mastery, in turn, can boost self-efficacy in a mutually enhancing process.”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The number of subtraction problems children solved under permissive choice conditions is a valid measure of their intrinsic interest in arithmetic.
“The number of subtraction problems the children solved under these permissive choice conditions constituted the measure of intrinsic interest.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Children who gain high self-efficacy through skill acquisition solve problems readily and therefore need not spend much time on them.
“Children who gain high self-efficacy through skill acquisition solve problems readily and, therefore, need not spend much time on them.”
The paper relies on this without support.
An aggregate measure of persistence spanning the entire range of difficulty is not too meaningful because long perseverence times on hard problems are offset by rapid solutions of less difficult ones.
“An aggregate measure of persistence spanning the entire range of difficulty is not too meaningful because long perseverence times on hard problems are offset by rapid solutions of less difficult ones.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Performances that are readily achieved suggest a higher level of self-ability than do analogous attainments gained through slow, heavy labor.
“Performances that are readily achieved suggest a higher level of self-ability than do analogous attainments gained through slow, heavy labor.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The influence of perceived self-efficacy on perseverence is best revealed on problems that cannot be solved however hard one tries.
“The influence of perceived self-efficacy on perseverence is, of course, best revealed on problems that cannot be solved however hard one tries.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Children who doubt their capabilities quit sooner than those who believe they can eventually master the task should they persevere.
“Children who doubt their capabilities quit sooner than those who believe they can eventually master the task should they persevere.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Research on intrinsic interest has centered primarily on how extrinsic incentives affect high interest when it is already present rather than on how to develop it when it is lacking.
“Research on intrinsic interest has centered primarily on how extrinsic incentives affect high interest when it is already present rather than on how to develop it when it is lacking.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The problem of developing interest when it is lacking presents major challenges, especially when avoidance of activities essential for self-development reflects antipathy arising from repeated failure rather than mere disinterest.
“It is the latter problem that presents major challenges, especially when avoidance of activities essential for self-development reflects antipathy arising from repeated failure rather than mere disinterest.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Judgment of mathematical self-efficacy by children just beginning to understand the requisite cognitive skills is no simple matter.
“Judgment of mathematical self-efficacy by children just beginning to understand the requisite cognitive skills is no simple matter.”
The paper relies on this without support.
With very brief exposure to sample items, it is hard to discriminate among different levels of task difficulty.
“With very brief exposure to sample items, it is hard to discriminate among different levels of task difficulty.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The complexity of some of the subtractive operations is not instantly apparent from what is most readily observable.
“This is because the complexity of some of the subtractive operations is not instantly apparent from what is most readily observable.”
The paper relies on this without support.
When complex operations are imbedded in seemingly easy problems, appearances can be quite misleading.
“When complex operations are imbedded in seemingly easy problems, which is often the case, appearances can be quite misleading.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Solving problems typically requires applying multiple operations.
“Moreover, solving problems typically requires applying multiple operations.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Judgment of personal capabilities for a given type of task is complicated if some of the constituent operations are thoroughly mastered and others are only partially understood.
“Even if they were readily recognizable, judgment of personal capabilities for a given type of task is complicated if some of the constituent operations are thoroughly mastered and others are only partially understood.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Selective attention to mastered elements highlights competencies, whereas focus on what is less well understood highlights shortcomings.
“Selective attention to mastered elements highlights competencies; whereas focus on what is less well understood highlights shortcomings.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Even equal attentiveness to all aspects of the task will produce some variance in judgments of self-efficacy, depending on how much weight is given to the differentially mastered operations.
“Even equal attentiveness to all aspects of the task will produce some variance in judgments of self-efficacy, depending on how much weight is given to the differentially mastered operations.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The evaluative standards against which ongoing performances are appraised constitute an additional factor that determines how well people judge their capabilities.
“The evaluative standards against which ongoing performances are appraised constitute an additional factor that determines how well people judge their capabilities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Performances that draw on only a few skills reduce the likelihood of overestimating personal capabilities by overweighting a mastered subpart.
“Performances that draw on only a few skills reduce the likelihood of overestimating personal capabilities by overweighting a mastered subpart.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In activities that depend on diverse subskills, knowledge of some of them, especially the more directly observable ones, raises the level of assurance that one might be able to perform successfully.
“In activities that depend on diverse subskills, knowledge of some of them, especially the more directly observable ones, raises the level of assurance that one might be able to perform successfully.”
The paper relies on this without support.
When progress is gauged against distal goals, similar accomplishments may prove disappointing because of wide disparities between current performance and lofty future standards.
“When progress is gauged against distal goals, similar accomplishments may prove disappointing because of wide disparities between current performance and lofty future standards.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“However, for many procrastinators, most tasks and assignments that need completion will probably be experienced as unrewarding, war-ranting treatment interventions that specifically target the value of performing the correct actions (Bandura & Schunk, 1981).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Bandura & Schunk, 1981
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“as Bandura and Schunk (1981) concluded, self-motivation can best be created and sustained by attainable sub-goals that lead to larger goals”
From Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis (2000) · cites this paper as Bandura and Schunk (1981)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The higher self-efficacy, the more likely we will take on a task (Bandura and Schunk, 1981).”
From How Study Environments Foster Academic Procrastination: Overview and Recommendations (2020) · cites this paper as Bandura and Schunk, 1981
In the citing paper
“Such facets of co-creation will likely nurture intrinsic motivation26, which is constructive for the development of self-efficacy30.”
From Establishing the importance of co-creation and self-efficacy in creative collaboration with artificial intelligence (2024) · cites this paper as [30]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
“r(8) = .61,p < .001”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Correlational Analyses
Reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .061
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“r(18) = .39,p < .05”
§ Cultivating Competence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest Through Proximal Self-Motivation > Correlational Analyses
Reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .089
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upr(8) = 0.61reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .061The two fall on opposite sides of .05
“r(8) = .61,p < .001”
- Doesn’t add upr(18) = 0.39reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .089
“r(18) = .39,p < .05”
- Not confirmedr(28) = 0.42reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .021
“r(28) = .42,p < .01”
- Not confirmedr(28) = 0.32reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .085
“r(28) = .32,p < .05”
- Not confirmedr(28) = 0.33reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .075
“r(28) = .33,p < .05”
- Not confirmedr(38) = 0.49reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .001
“r(38)= .49,p < .001”
- Not confirmedr(28) = 0.4reported p < .025 · recomputed p = .029
“r(28) = .40,p < .025”
- Not confirmedr(28) = 0.25reported p < .1 · recomputed p = .183
“r(28) = .25,p < .10”
- Not confirmedr(8) = 0.63reported p = .025 · recomputed p = .051
“r(8) = .63,p = .025”
- Not confirmedr(38) = 0.27reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .092
“r(38) = .27,p < .05”
- ConsistentF(3, 36) = 10.13reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3, 36) = 10.13,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(6, 72) = 5.96reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(6, 72) = 5.96, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(3, 36) = 12.8reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3, 36) = 12.80, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(3, 36) = 12.55reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3, 36) = 12.55, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(3, 36) = 5.67reported p < .005 · recomputed p = .003
“F(3, 36) = 5.67, p < .005”
- ConsistentF(3, 36) = 3.57reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .023
“F(3, 36) = 3.57, p < .05”
- ConsistentF(1, 27) = 3.94reported p < .1 · recomputed p = .057
“F(1, 27) = 3.94, p < .10”
- ConsistentF(1, 27) = 5.44reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .027
“F(1, 27) = 5.44, p < .05”
- ConsistentF(1, 27) = 3.66reported p < .1 · recomputed p = .066
“F(1, 27) = 3.66, p < .10”
- ConsistentF(1, 27) = 4.67reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .040
“F(1, 27) = 4.67, p < .05”
- ConsistentF(3, 36) = 3.06reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .040
“F(3, 36) = 3.06, p < .05”
- Consistentr(38) = 0.42reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .007
“r(38) = .42,p < .01”
- Consistentr(38) = 0.51reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“r(38) = .51,p < .001”
- Consistentr(38) = 0.58reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“r(38) = .58,p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
Cites
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
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Self-citationKytle, J., & Bandura, A. (1978) · Contemporary Sociology · doi:10.2307/2065952 · Cited by 25,422
Self-citationSelf-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
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Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives
Locke, E. A. (1968) · Organizational Behavior and Human Performance · doi:10.1016/0030-5073(68)90004-4 · Cited by 2,409
New directions in attribution research
Harvey, J. H., Ickes, W. J., & Kidd, R. F. (1976) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,994
Cognitive processes mediating behavioral change.
Bandura, A., Adams, N. E., & Beyer, J. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.35.3.125 · Cited by 1,392
Self-citationAnalysis of self-efficacy theory of behavioral change
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Self-citationDissonance processes as self-affirmation.
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Modeling and attributional effects on children's achievement: A self-efficacy analysis.
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Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- [5]5. Bandura, A. The self and mechanisms of agency. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol.
- [6]6. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, in press.
- [18]18. Jeffery, K. M. The effects of goal-setting on self-motivated persistence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1977.
Cited by
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The use of a single budget or separate budgets for planning and performance evaluation
Arnold, M. C., & Artz, M. (2018) · Accounting Organizations and Society · doi:10.1016/j.aos.2018.06.001 · Cited by 72
Self-Efficacy in a Nursing Context
Shorey, S., & López, V. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-63135-2_12 · Cited by 106
Learning strategies and self-efficacy as predictors of academic performance: a preliminary study
Yip, M. C. W. (2012) · Quality in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13538322.2012.667263 · Cited by 73
“Bandura and his colleague reported in a study that students with higher scores in self-efficacy rating were more willing to choose and more persistent in facing challenging tasks than the students with low self-efficacy (Bandura & Schunk, 1981).”
BackgroundRelationships between student cognitions and their effects on study strategies
Ferla, J., Valcke, M., & Schuyten, G. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.11.003 · Cited by 71
“…use more cognitive strategies, and are more likely to persist at a task than students who do not believe they are able to carry out that task (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Bouffard-Bouchard, 1990; Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990; Salomon, 1984; Schunk, 1982; Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Pons, 1992).”
BackgroundRecycling today, sustainability tomorrow: Effects of psychological distance on behavioural practice
Schill, M., & Shaw, D. (2016) · European Management Journal · doi:10.1016/j.emj.2016.05.004 · Cited by 71
Wang, L. (2019) · Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly · doi:10.1123/apaq.2018-0068 · Cited by 71
Motives to Self-Regulate Learning: A Social Cognitive Account
Zimmerman, B. J., & Cleary, T. J. (2009) · doi:10.4324/9780203879498-18 · Cited by 76
Motivation and performance: Two consequences of winning and losing in competition
Reeve, J., Olson, B. C., & Cole, S. G. (1985) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00991833 · Cited by 71
Shih, S., & Alexander, J. M. (2000) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.3.536 · Cited by 77
What theories of motivation say about why learners learn
McMillan, J. H., & Forsyth, D. R. (1991) · New Directions for Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1002/tl.37219914507 · Cited by 72
Self-motivated and directed learning across the lifespan
Cronin-Golomb, L. M., & Bauer, P. J. (2022) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103816 · Cited by 83
Student models of learning and their impact on study strategies
Ferla, J., Valcke, M., & Schuyten, G. (2009) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075070802528288 · Cited by 75
Inquiry Learning in the Singaporean Context: Factors affecting student interest in school science
Jocz, J., Zhai, J., & Tan, A.-L. (2014) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2014.908327 · Cited by 81
“Bandura and Schunk (1981) studied selfmotivation in young children who were poor at math and found the subject uninter-”
BackgroundSELF-EFFICACY (Perspektif Teori Kognitif Sosial dan Implikasinya terhadap Pendidikan)
Mukhid, A. (2009) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · doi:10.19105/tjpi.v4i1.247 · Cited by 70
Leisure Activity, Motivation, and Academic Achievement in High School Students
Bergin, D. A. (1992) · Journal of Leisure Research · doi:10.1080/00222216.1992.11969890 · Cited by 70
Burke, L. E., & Fair, J. M. (2003) · The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing · doi:10.1097/00005082-200309000-00004 · Cited by 69
Oliver, B., Tucker, B. M., Gupta, R., et al. (2008) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602930701773034 · Cited by 69
“What students bring to the teaching–learning partnership: their level of motivation (Bandura and Schunk 1981 ; Pintrich et al .”
BackgroundSkaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2004) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.95.3f.1187-1202 · Cited by 68
Busch, T., Fallan, L., & Pettersen, A. (1998) · Quality in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/1353832980040204 · Cited by 68
“Secondly, self-efficacy affects the amount of energy we invest in a task, and the length of time during which we persevere without achieving the desired results (Bandura and Schunk, 1981; Brown, Lent, and Larkin, 1989; Bouffard-Bouchard, 1990).”
BackgroundCareer Compromise, Career Distress, and Perceptions of Employability
Creed, P. A., & Gagliardi, R.-E. (2014) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072714523082 · Cited by 69
“…have been demonstrated in the literature: Failure to progress goals has been shown to be related to lower self-efficacy (Tolli & Schmidt, 2008), poorer ratings of ability (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Lemyre, Hall, & Roberts, 2008), personal doubts, and lowering of standards (Lemyre et al., 2008).”
BackgroundStep by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation
Huang, S., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.05.001 · Cited by 75
“The achievement of sub-goals can enhance self-efficacy and competence, leading to greater persistence and motivation (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Stock & Cervone, 1990).”
BackgroundWhat motivates students? A study on the effects of teacher leadership and students’ self-efficacy
Öqvist, A., & Malmström, M. (2017) · International Journal of Leadership in Education · doi:10.1080/13603124.2017.1355480 · Cited by 102
“…has been thoroughly validated in a wide range of settings, including self-efficacy in adolescence, childhood, education and management (e.g. Bandura, 1993; Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Bouffard-Bouchard, 1990; Paulhus, 1983; Powell, 1992; Westerberg, Singh, & Häckner, 1997; Wincent & Westerberg, 2005).”
Machin, M. A., & Fogarty, G. J. (2008) · Performance Improvement Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1937-8327.1997.tb00051.x · Cited by 69
Ng, T. W. H., Shao, Y., Koopmann, J. M., Wang, M., Hsu, D. Y., & Yim, F. H. (2021) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2567 · Cited by 83
Adams, K. (2004) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/0729436042000206618 · Cited by 74
Dickson, K. E., & Lorenz, A. (2009) · Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management · doi:10.21818/001c.17252 · Cited by 68
“Researchers (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Gist, 1987) have suggested that personallydriven success at a task increases self-efficacy and satisfaction.”
BackgroundPeters, E., Tompkins, M., Knoll, M. A. Z., Ardoin, S., Shoots-Reinhard, B., & Meara, A. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.1903126116 · Cited by 65
“Researchers have successfully altered objective numeracy and numeric self-efficacy in past studies, although doing so is difficult (9, 28).”
BackgroundThe Effects of Goal Proximity and Goal Specificity on Endurance Performance
Weinberg, R. S., Bruya, L. D., & Jackson, A. (1985) · Journal of Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsp.7.3.296 · Cited by 68
Southwick, D. A., Tsay, C., & Duckworth, A. L. (2019) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2020.100126 · Cited by 86
Combating the IS Enrollment Crisis: The Role of Effective Teachers in Introductory IS Courses
Looney, C. A., & Akbulut, A. Y. (2007) · Communications of the Association for Information Systems · doi:10.17705/1cais.01938 · Cited by 67
“Students tend to be more motivated to learn when striving to reach a designated goal [Bandura and Schunk 1981].”
BackgroundInfluentialA Behavior-Analytic Critique of Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
Biglan, A. (1987) · The Behavior Analyst · doi:10.1007/bf03392402 · Cited by 69
“Requests for reprints should be sent to Anthony Biglan, Oregon Research Institute, 1899 Willamette Street, Suite 2, Eugene, Oregon 97401. cial skills (Kazdin, 1979), arithmetic skills (Bandura & Schunk, 1981), depression (Zeiss, Lewinsohn, & Munoz, 1979), and pain tolerance (Glasgow et al., 1982).”
BackgroundThe influence of PBL on students' self-efficacy beliefs in chemistry
Mataka, L. M., & Kowalske, M. G. (2015) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c5rp00099h · Cited by 67
“As a result, people with higher SEBs are more likely to perform difficult tasks than their counterparts with low SEBs (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Fairbrother, 2000).”
BackgroundStreet, C. (2003) · Teacher education quarterly (Claremont, Calif.) · Cited by 67
Orrill, C. H. (2001) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504504 · Cited by 66
“Proximal goals, which are small, easily achieved goals that help move the learner toward a larger, distal goal, have been shown to raise efficacy levels in learners (e.g, Bandura & Schunk, 1981).”
BackgroundRosenberg‐Kima, R. B., Plant, E. A., Doerr, C. E., & Baylor, A. L. (2010) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/j.2168-9830.2010.tb01040.x · Cited by 67
“Observing a social model perform a behavior provides people with information relevant to their likely self-efficacy for similar behaviors (Bandura and Schunk, 1981).”
BackgroundStanszus, L., Fischer, D., Böhme, T., Frank, P., Fritzsche, J., Geiger, S. M., Harfensteller, J., Grossman, P., & Schrader, U. (2017) · Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability · doi:10.1515/jtes-2017-0001 · Cited by 66
“Promoting Implicit Ethical Values of Mindfulness In contrast to affective learning and introspection, cognitive focused learning is more concerned with the acquisition of external information and conscious thought processes (Bandura & Schunk, 1981).”
BackgroundSelf-Schema, Cognitive Bias, and the Processing of Therapeutic Experiences
Goldfried, M. R., & Robins, C. J. (1983) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-010602-8.50008-0 · Cited by 66
York, B. N., & Loeb, S. (2014) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w20659 · Cited by 70
Tailoring Persuasive and Behaviour Change Systems Based on Stages of Change and Motivation
Oyebode, O., Ndulue, C., Mulchandani, D., A. Zamil Adib, A., Alhasani, M., & Orji, R. (2021) · Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445619 · Cited by 66
“Confdent people tend to believe they can efectively achieve their goals through their actions [14, 15].”
BackgroundLanguage acquisition in second life: improving self-efficacy beliefs
Henderson, M., Huang, H., Grant, S., & Henderson, L. (2009) · ResearchOnline - JCU (James Cook University) · Cited by 65
Yücel, Y., & Rızvanoğlu, K. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.05.029 · Cited by 65
Goal setting and behavior change in a smoking cessation program
Borrelli, B., & Mermelstein, R. J. (1994) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf02359396 · Cited by 65
Goal Setting in Sport: Clarifying Recent Anomalies
Hall, H., & Byrne, A. T. (1988) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.10.2.184 · Cited by 62
Cheung, D. (2014) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-014-9415-0 · Cited by 65
“Schunk’s hypothesis has been supported by empirical research (Bandura and Schunk 1981; Nbina and Viko 2010; Nelson Laird et al. 2008; Phan 2007; Schmidt and Ford 2003; Schunk and Swartz 1993; Zusho et al. 2003).”
MethodFryer, L. K., Ainley, M., & Thompson, A. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2016.08.011 · Cited by 62
Developing measures of motivational orientation to read and write: A longitudinal study
Hamilton, E. W., Nolen, S. B., & Abbott, R. D. (2013) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2013.04.007 · Cited by 69
Houser‐Marko, L., & Sheldon, K. M. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208322618 · Cited by 69
“For example, Bandura and Schunk (1981) and Bandura (1988) showed that focusing participants’ attention on a proximal or short-term goal rather than a distal or longer term goal is associated with greater performance and associated self-efficacy, and Manderlink and Harackiewicz (1984) showed that such a focus is correl…”
BackgroundHwang, Y., Kettinger, W. J., & Yi, M. Y. (2014) · European Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.1057/ejis.2014.24 · Cited by 66
“Bandura & Schunk (1981) explain how self-ef fi cacy in fl uences an individual ’ s capability.”
BackgroundContingent Match Incentives Increase Donations
Anik, L., Norton, M. I., & Dan Ariely, C. (2014) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmr.13.0432 · Cited by 60
Stages of motivation for contributing user-generated content: A theory and empirical test
Crowston, K., & Fagnot, I. J. (2017) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2017.08.005 · Cited by 63
“For instance, Bandura and Schunk (1981) claim that “consistent positive feedback should”
BackgroundFree Fantasies about the Future and the Emergence of Developmental Goals
Oettingen, G. (2012) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452204802.n11 · Cited by 61
“…content theories point to the importance of goal content (Dweck, 1996; Deci & Ryan, 1991) and goal 315 316 DESIGNING PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT framing (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Higgins, 1996; Locke & Latham, 1990), whereas self-regulation theories of goal pursuit focus on the role of planning and…”
BackgroundSelf-efficacy and mathematics achievement: A study of their relation.
Norwich, B. (1987) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.79.4.384 · Cited by 65
Interface agents as social models
Baylor, A. L., Rosenberg‐Kima, R. B., & Plant, E. A. (2006) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/1125451.1125564 · Cited by 62
“Research Design and Independent Variables The study employed a 2 (gender: male vs. female) x 2 (age: old vs. young) x 2 (coolness: cool vs. uncool) between subjects factorial design.”
MethodThe use and application of learning theory in learning analytics: a scoping review
Khalil, M., Prinsloo, P., & Slade, S. (2022) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-022-09340-3 · Cited by 62
Green‐Demers, I., Pelletier, L. G., Stewart, D. G., & Gushue, N. R. (1998) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2004_2 · Cited by 62
“The effect is at its peak when the challenge is optimal ( Bandura & Schunk, 1981 ; Csikszentmihalyi, 1975 ; Harter, 1978).”
BackgroundBiju, N., Abdelrasheed, N. S. G., Bakiyeva, K., Prasad, K. D. V., & Jember, B. (2024) · Language Testing in Asia · doi:10.1186/s40468-024-00322-z · Cited by 90
“Research has shown that perceived self-efficacy fosters motivation and serves as a significant predictor of learner performance in educational activities (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Glynn et al., 2011; Shea & Bidjerano, 2010), including those conducted online (Kim et al., 2014; Teng & Yue, 2023).”
BackgroundEmail, Self-Regulation, Self-Efficacy, and Achievement in a College Online Mathematics Course
Hodges, C. B., & Kim, C. (2010) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.43.2.d · Cited by 60
“Among the various aspects pertaining to learners’ motivation, self-efficacy is commonly considered critical (Bandura, 1981; Bandura & Schunk, 1981), especially with regard to subject matter that is perceived to be challenging to learners.”
BackgroundWong, M. C. S., Lau, T. C. M., & Lee, A. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052023 · Cited by 60
The development of a taxonomy of career competencies for professional women
Hackett, G., Betz, N. E., & Doty, M. S. (1985) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/bf00287604 · Cited by 60
“…has been applied primarily to the treatment of various phobic syndromes in clinical settings, but recent extensions to other clinical and counseling concerns have demonstrated the utility of self-efficacy theory (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Condiotte & Lichtenstein, 1981; Kazdin, 1979; Schunk, 1981).”
MethodWhy study? How reasons for learning influence strategy selection
Nolen, S. B. (1996) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf01463938 · Cited by 55
“This position is consistent with studies of the relationship between goals, self-efficacy, and continuing motivation ( Bandura and Schunk, 1981; Schunk, 1994; Schunk and Cox, 1986).”
ResultMemory performance and beliefs as a function of goal setting and aging.
West, R. L., Thorn, R. M., & Bagwell, D. K. (2003) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.18.1.111 · Cited by 60
Human Development and Intervention in Childhood Psychopathology
Kendall, P. C., Lerner, R. M., & Craighead, W. E. (1984) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1984.tb00274.x · Cited by 68
Psychotherapists' perspectives on treating themselves and their clients for psychic distress.
Prochaska, J. O., & Norcross, J. C. (1983) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/0735-7028.14.5.642 · Cited by 60
Orakçı, Ş. (2023) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22851 · Cited by 60
Climbing the goal ladder: How upcoming actions increase level of aspiration.
Koo, M., & Fishbach, A. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019443 · Cited by 60
Henderson, M., Huang, H., Grant, S., & Henderson, L. (2012) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.842 · Cited by 60
“Self-efficacy beliefs are defined as "people's judgment of their capabilities to organise and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances" (Bandura & Schunk, 1981, p. 31).”
BackgroundMotivational strategies to engage learners in desirable difficulties.
Zepeda, C. D., Martin, R. S., & Butler, A. C. (2020) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.08.007 · Cited by 58
Adult Learners as Graduate Students: Underlying Motivation in Completing Graduate Programs
Hegarty, N. (2011) · The Journal of Continuing Higher Education · doi:10.1080/07377363.2011.614883 · Cited by 58
“In fact, Bandura and Schunk (1981) showed that students who had the highest IQ quite often did not achieve the highest test score results.”
BackgroundMarks, R. (2014) · Health Psychology Open · doi:10.1177/2055102914564582 · Cited by 62
“Additional evidence suggests, a sound patient–therapist relationship that permits mutual inquiry, information-giving, problem solving, and the negotiation of activity goals may foster a patient’s sense of confidence, as may setting short-term, rather than long-term goals for some desired achievement (Bandura and Schun…”
BackgroundChen, M., Jeronen, E. K., & Wang, A. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18158217 · Cited by 57
“There is a relationship between motivation and interest in entrepreneurship [78], and self-motivation through proximal goal setting acts as an effective mechanism to cultivate competencies, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest [75].”
BackgroundThe effect of self-efficacy and self-set grade goals on academic outcomes
Saks, K. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1324007 · Cited by 89
“…goals in the context of agency (Biesta et al., 2015; Leijen et al., 2020), proximal and distal goals in the context of self-efficacy theory (Bandura and Schunk, 1981), and outcome/performance goals and mastery/behavioral/learning goals in the self-theory (Dweck, 2000) and goal-setting…”
BackgroundBlair, J. E. (1993) · AAOHN Journal · doi:10.1177/216507999304100506 · Cited by 59
Lin, C. (2017) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2017.1380061 · Cited by 70
“Second, job self-efficacy affects the amount of energy the employees invest in their career, as well as the length of time during which they persevere the job without achieving the desired results (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Bouffard-Bouchard, 1990; Brown, Lent, & Larkin, 1989).”
BackgroundIntasao, N., & Hao, N. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01810 · Cited by 68
A auto-eficácia e os aspectos comportamentais de crianças com dificuldade de aprendizagem
Medeiros, P. C., Loureiro, S. R., Linhares, M. B. M., & Marturano, E. M. (2000) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1590/s0102-79722000000300002 · Cited by 79
Cognitive adaptation and mental health: A motivational analysis
Ratelle, C. F., Vallerand, R. J., Chantal, Y., & Provencher, P. J. (2004) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.208 · Cited by 58
“Research on achievement indicates that individuals holding these mild cognitive distortions perform better than individuals approaching tasks with realism (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Dweck & Leggett, 1988).”
BackgroundAkbulut, A. Y., & Looney, C. A. (2009) · Journal of Information Technology Education Research · doi:10.28945/161 · Cited by 56
Mobile composing: Professional practices and impact on students’ motivation in popular music
Chen, J. C. W. (2019) · International Journal of Music Education · doi:10.1177/0255761419855820 · Cited by 61
“Individuals who possess higher self-efficacy are more likely to undertake challenging tasks (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Pons, 1992).”
BackgroundResultMujtaba, T., & Reiss, M. J. (2013) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2012.762699 · Cited by 57
Ford, M. E., & Thompson, R. A. (1985) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/016502548500800402 · Cited by 54
Motivational strategies to enhance effective learning in teaching struggling students
Wery, J., & Thomson, M. M. (2013) · Support for Learning · doi:10.1111/1467-9604.12027 · Cited by 59
“Setting intermediate goals can be self-motivating because it allows students to feel competency as they accomplish smaller goals (Bandura and Schunk, 1981).”
BackgroundThe Relationship between Learning Motivation and Self Efficacy among Nursing Students
Hassankhani, H., Aghdam, A. M., Rahmani, A., et al. (2015) · Research and Development in Medical Education · doi:10.15171/rdme.2015.016 · Cited by 56
Anders, A. D. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.009 · Cited by 62
The Effects of Pedagogical Agent Voice and Animation on Learning, Motivation and Perceived Persona
Baylor, A. L., Ryu, J., & Shen, E. (2003) · EdMedia: World Conference on Educational Media and Technology · Cited by 57
Falxa-Raymond, N., Svendsen, E., & Campbell, L. K. (2013) · Urban Forestry & Urban Greening · doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2013.04.003 · Cited by 55
“Finally, self-efficacy has been found to relate ositively to interest in an activity (Bandura and Schunk, 1981), hich may encourage training program graduates to pursue a lifeong career in their new area of employment.”
BackgroundHolloway, A. S., Watson, H. E., & Starr, G. (2006) · Journal of Substance Use · doi:10.1080/14659890601037376 · Cited by 55
“The advantages of setting proximate goals in relation to self-efficacy development have been highlighted as a way in which success can be achieved promptly with a resulting increase in the individual’s motivation towards the accession of distal goals (Bandura, 1977b; Bandura & Schunk, 1981).”
BackgroundUsing Individualized Learning Plans to Facilitate Learner-Centered Teaching
Lockspeiser, T. M., & Kaul, P. (2016) · Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2015.10.020 · Cited by 55
Chu, S. L., Schlegel, R. J., Quek, F. K. H., Christy, A. G., & Chen, K. (2017) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3025453.3025458 · Cited by 65
The Impact of Profit Sharing on the Performance of Financial Services Firms*
MAGNAN, M. L., & St‐Onge, S. (2005) · Journal of Management Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2005.00518.x · Cited by 55
“Proximal sub-goals are associated with positive capability and context beliefs, and a high probability of generating positive feedback information (Bandura, 1986; Bandura and Schunk, 1981).”
BackgroundMattern, K. D., & Shaw, E. J. (2010) · Journal of college student development · doi:10.1353/csd.2010.0017 · Cited by 63
“Bandura and Schunk (1981) noted that students’ inaccurate selfefficacy estimates may develop from erroneous task analysis or lack of self-knowledge, both of which, Klassen (2006) highlighted, are problems commonly associated with learning disabled students.”
BackgroundUsing an interactive visual novel to promote patient empowerment through engagement
Yin, L., Ring, L., & Bickmore, T. (2012) · International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games (FDG) · doi:10.1145/2282338.2282351 · Cited by 56
“These doubts tend to hinder their efforts or make them give up altogether, whereas a strong sense of self-efficacy helps a person master the challenges [12, 19, 47, 53].”
BackgroundSu, Y., Li, Y., Liang, J., & Tsai, C. (2018) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2018.1527363 · Cited by 66
“This result corresponds to the findings revealed in previous studies that leaners ’ goal setting plays an influential role in explaining students ’ perceptions of their ability to perform a given task (e.g. Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Su, Zheng, et al., 2018).”
ResultSocial Learning Theory: A Contextualist Account of Cognitive Functioning
Zimmerman, B. J. (1983) · Springer series in cognitive development · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9490-7_1 · Cited by 56
Concepts in Health Promotion: PERCEIVED SELF-EFFICACY AND BARRIERS IN OLDER ADULTS
Easom, L. R. (2003) · Journal of Gerontological Nursing · doi:10.3928/0098-9134-20030501-05 · Cited by 54
Zhou, S., & Rose, H. (2021) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2021.102644 · Cited by 58
McCrory, P., Cobley, S. P., & Marchant, P. (2013) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0094955 · Cited by 52
“In accordance with prior microanalytical approaches (Bandura & Schunk, 1981), the effect of PST on selfefficacy perceptions was measured using four separate single-item measures.”
MethodIn search of pure unidirectional determinants
Bandura, A. (1981) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(81)80104-9 · Cited by 53
Self-citationA Control-Theory Approach to Human Behavior, and Implications for Problems in Self-Management
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1983) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-010602-8.50010-9 · Cited by 53
Generalization and Adaptation of Learning Strategies to Natural Environments
Ellis, E. S., Lenz, B. K., & Sabornie, E. J. (1987) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/074193258700800205 · Cited by 53
Taşgın, A., & Eryiğit, Ç. D. (2023) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101400 · Cited by 81
Metadata
- Authors
- Bandura, A., & Schunk, D. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- ORCID
- Schunk, Dale H.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1981-09
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 586-598
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2144190976
- Cited by
- 2,675
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 47 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 91 · 2023: 122 · 2022: 114 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 107 · 2019: 147 · 2018: 114 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 123 · 2015: 115 · 2014: 134 · 2013: 100 · 2012: 123
- FWCI
- 36.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- libres.uncg.edu
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- self-motivation, self-efficacy, intrinsic interest, self-directed learning, children, mathematics achievement, goal proximity, competence development
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