Cited by 642Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesEmotions and Moral BehaviorNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

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Regulating responses to anger: Effects of rumination and distraction on angry mood.

Rusting, Cheryl L., Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan·1998·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.790

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Abstract

Previous research has found that self-focused rumination maintains or increases depressed mood, whereas distraction decreases depressed mood (S. Nolen-Hoeksema & J. Morrow, 1993; S. Nolen-Hoeksema, J. Morrow, & B. L. Fredrickson, 1993). The present series of experiments examined these mood regulation strategies in the context of an angry mood. In Experiments 1 and 3, rumination increased anger, whereas distraction decreased or had no effect on anger. In Experiments 2 and 4, women were more likely to choose to ruminate when in a neutral mood but to distract themselves following induction of an angry mood. Men were equally likely to choose rumination or distraction, regardless of mood condition. The results are interpreted and discussed within the framework of an associative-network model of anger.

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McClelland, A., Jones, K. V., & Gregg, M. (2009) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.08.008 · Cited by 15
“Rumination styles include worry (Brosschot & Thayer, 2003), and depressive or anger cognitions (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
Background
The Privilege of Humiliation: The Effects of Social Roles and Norms on Immediate and Prolonged Aggression in ConflictPreprint
Coleman, P. T., Kugler, K. G., & Goldman, J. S. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1111629 · Cited by 14
It is not Black and White: Discrimination and distress in Hawai‘i.
Mossakowski, K. N., Wongkaren, T. S., & Uperesa, L. (2017) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000139 · Cited by 14
“In contrast to women, men are more likely to externalize distress by engaging in substance abuse and dependence rather than internalize distress (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
Background
Anger rumination, binge eating, and at‐risk alcohol use in a university sample
Wakeford, G., Kannis‐Dymand, L., & Statham, D. J. (2017) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajpy.12187 · Cited by 13
“Individuals with a cognitive response style characterised by anger rumination are likely to experience more frequent, longer lasting, and intense episodes of anger (Ray, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2008; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Sukhodolsky et al., 2001).”
Background
Disarming darkness: Effects of ambient lighting on approach motivation and state anger among people with varying trait anger
Veenstra, L., & Koole, S. L. (2018) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.07.005 · Cited by 14
Clinical Case of a Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Rumination-Focused CBT for Anger Rumination
Møeller, S. B., Kvist, V., Jansen, J. E., & Watkins, E. R. (2021) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-021-09501-y · Cited by 13
“Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema (1998) found that anger rumination increased anger while distraction decreased it and concluded that anger rumination—like depressive rumination—increases the negative affective state by focusing attention on the causes and consequences of the anger-inducing event.”
Background
Anger rumination and imagined violence as related to violent behavior before and after psychiatric hospitalization
Hardin, K. M., Contreras, I. M., Kosiak, K., & Novaco, R. W. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23334 · Cited by 13
Principal domains of quantitative anxiety trait in subjects with lifetime history of mania
Contreras, J., Hare, E., Escamilla, M., & Raventós, H. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.06.036 · Cited by 13
“Ina study conducted on students, Ryan (2007) found that worry was associated with anxious and depressive symptoms whereas rumination was uniquely related to depression.”
Background
The Effects of Acute Alcohol Intoxication and Self-Focused Rumination on Triggered Displaced Aggression
Denson, T. F., Spanovic, M., Aviles, F. E., Pollock, V. E., Earleywine, M., & Miller, N. (2011) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2011.546750 · Cited by 13
“By contrast with rumination, distraction provides time for aggressive feelings, thoughts, and physiological arousal to subside (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Low Subjective Social Status Promotes Ruminative Coping1
Jackson, B., Twenge, J., Souza, C., Chiang, J. J., & Goodman, E. (2011) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00820.x · Cited by 16
The Relationship Of Academic Stress With Aggression, Depression, And Academic Performance Of College Students In Iran
(2011) · i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology · doi:10.26634/jpsy.5.1.1495 · Cited by 13
“Women also tend to choose distraction rather than rumination as a way of cognitively dealing with anger-inducing situations, whereas men tend to ruminate more about their anger (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Frodi, 1978).”
Background
Social support and individual variability in patterns of haemodynamic reactivity and recovery
León, T. C., Nouwen, A., & Sheffield, D. (2007) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/14768320600941806 · Cited by 13
“Rumination has been found to sustain anger after provocation (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998) and may prolong pressor episodes by delaying recovery or triggering repeated episodes of arousal (Glynn, Christenfeld, & Gerin, 2002; Schwartz et al., 2000).”
Background
Effects of Ruminative Response Styles on Mental Maladjustment
Nagura, Y., & Hashimoto, T. (1999) · The Japanese Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.11560/jahp.12.2_1 · Cited by 13
More and Better: Reappraisal Quality Partially Explains the Effect of Reappraisal Use on Changes in Positive and Negative Affect
Southward, M. W., Holmes, A. C., Strunk, D. R., & Cheavens, J. S. (2021) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-021-10255-z · Cited by 12
Who is to blame for incivility? The influences of family undermining on employee incivility towards customers
Ni, D., Yang, M., Chen, W., & Che, Y. (2024) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.114621 · Cited by 12
Expression Versus Distraction
James, C., Drake, J. E., & Winner, E. (2017) · Empirical Studies of the Arts · doi:10.1177/0276237417718423 · Cited by 12
“Participants recorded the event on a sheet of paper and were then guided through a 3-min visual imagery task (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
Method
Ruminative responses to interpersonal precipitants mediate borderline personality disorder features’ effects on distress reactivity and recovery in daily life
Yaroslavsky, I., Napolitano, S. C., & France, C. M. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22839 · Cited by 12
The Mediating Role of Rumination and Self-Regulation Between Self-Generated Stress and Psychological Well-Being
Yazıcı‐Kabadayı, S., & Öztemel, K. (2022) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221119415 · Cited by 12
“…problems and feelings, is associated with borderline (emotionally unstable) personality disorder (Dell ’ Osso et al., 2019; Selby et al., 2016), anger (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), social withdrawal (King & DeLongis, 2014), anxiety, and depressive disorders (McLaughlin & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011;…”
Background
Fit to Forgive: Effect of Mode of Exercise on Capacity to Override Grudges and Forgiveness
Struthers, C. W., van Monsjou, E., Ayoub, M., & Guilfoyle, J. R. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00538 · Cited by 13
“Research shows that ruminating about a transgression increases negative feelings about the transgressor and deters prosocial responses such as forgiveness (Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Witvliet et al., 2001; McCullough et al., 2007; Ray et al., 2008).”
Background
Regulating Rumination by Anger: Evidence for the Mutual Promotion and Counteraction (MPMC) Theory of Emotionality
Zhan, J., Tang, F., He, M. L., Fan, J., Xiao, J., Liu, C., & Luo, J. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01871 · Cited by 13
“For example, individuals who habitually ruminate tend to have a strategic attentional bias toward negative information; thus, distraction from the current event has been determined to decrease an individual’s ruminative thinking (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991; Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Donaldson et al., 2007; Yoon and…”
Background
An Exploratory Examination of Client Perspectives on a Positive Memory Technique for PTSD
Caldas, S. V., Jin, L., Dolan, M., Dranger, P., & Contractor, A. A. (2020) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000001082 · Cited by 12
Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and mood induction studies
Gomez, R., & Cooper, A. J. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511819384.010 · Cited by 12
Evaluating the Effect of Meta-Cognitive Beliefs about Angry Rumination on Anger with Cognitive Bias Modification
Krans, J., Moulds, M. L., Grisham, J., Lang, T., & Denson, T. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.038613 · Cited by 15
“…that clearly convey a stronger negative message about rumination in the negative beliefs condition and consider including an additional control condition in which a different strategy is being promoted in the CBM training (e.g., distraction; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Denson et al., 2012).”
Background
Cognitive–Behavioral Factors and Anger in the Occurrence of Aggression and Violence
Novaco, R. W. (2017) · The Wiley Handbook of Violence and Aggression · doi:10.1002/9781119057574.whbva026 · Cited by 12
Impact of Experienced Regret on Donation Willingness: Advertising Appeal and Framing Effect
Tang, J., Gong, H., Bian, X., Zheng, C., & Yang, X. (2022) · Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly · doi:10.1177/08997640221138263 · Cited by 11
“Changing the focus (e.g., from self to others or vice versa) and redirecting attention from negative to positive information are effective because they disrupt automatic information processing caused by negative materials (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
Background
Storied Lessons: Learning from Anger in Childhood by Narrating
Pasupathi, M., Wainryb, C., Oldroyd, K., & Bourne, S. V. (2019) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025419844023 · Cited by 7
“Distraction—or shifting attention away from a distressing event—is a strategy available to people of all ages, from infancy to late life (Amirkhan & Auyeung, 2007; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; von Salisch & Vogelgesang, 2005; Zimmermann & Iwanski, 2014).”
Background
Shame-proneness and suicidal ideation: The roles of depressive and anger rumination
Lin, Y.-C., Wee, J. Y., Marks, R. B., O’Connell, K. L., Hassler, M. E., & Law, K. C. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100303 · Cited by 18
Anger, Violence, and Recidivism in Justice System Involved Youth
Acland, E. L., & Cavanagh, C. (2022) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2022.2028882 · Cited by 11
“This suggests that ruminating on perceived wrongs—which prolongs anger—may be especially related to aggression (Bushman et al., 2005; Mikula et al., 1998; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Stets & Tsushima, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluential

Authors: Rusting, C. L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1998
Volume: 74
Issue: 3
Pages: 790-803
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.790
OpenAlex: W2049614219
Cited by: 641
References: 73
Citations by year: 2026: 4 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 39
FWCI: 12.75
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords: anger, rumination, distraction, mood regulation, gender differences, emotion regulation strategies
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Anger, Attention, Defense Mechanisms, Depression, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Models, Psychological, Students

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Regulating responses to anger: Effects of rumination and distraction on angry mood.

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