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Regulating responses to anger: Effects of rumination and distraction on angry mood.
Abstract
Previous research has found that self-focused rumination maintains or increases depressed mood, whereas distraction decreases depressed mood (S. Nolen-Hoeksema & J. Morrow, 1993; S. Nolen-Hoeksema, J. Morrow, & B. L. Fredrickson, 1993). The present series of experiments examined these mood regulation strategies in the context of an angry mood. In Experiments 1 and 3, rumination increased anger, whereas distraction decreased or had no effect on anger. In Experiments 2 and 4, women were more likely to choose to ruminate when in a neutral mood but to distract themselves following induction of an angry mood. Men were equally likely to choose rumination or distraction, regardless of mood condition. The results are interpreted and discussed within the framework of an associative-network model of anger.
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“rumination over negative emotional events prolongs angry and depressed affective states (Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1993; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998)”
From The Affective Style Questionnaire: Development and Psychometric Properties (2010) · cites this paper as Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998
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“The self-focused rumination and distraction conditions were taken from Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema (1998).”
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“Research indicates that rumination increases angry feelings and maintains angry moods (Bushman, 2002; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), and anger rumination is highly correlated with trait anger, anger-out, and anger-in (Sukodolsky et al., 2001).”
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“For instance, attempts to suppress one’s emotions and/or excogitating over past or present negative emotional experiences increases psychological arousal and prolong negative emotional states (Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Gross and Levenson, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema and Morrow, 1993).”
BackgroundBormann, J. E., & Carrico, A. W. (2009) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-008-9007-3 · Cited by 52
“We also explored distancing as another coping strategy that might explain the effects of mantram on sustained reductions in trait-anger if the mantram intervention served as a distraction (Broderick, 2005; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
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“For example, rumination or fixating on negative thoughts about perceived past or future wrongs has been shown to be a major factor in the production and perpetuation of chronic anger and aggression (Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema 1998; Sukhodolsky et al. 2001).”
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BackgroundYing, J., You, J., Liu, S., & Wu, R. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.104992 · Cited by 55
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Metacognitive beliefs about rumination in anger
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Individual Differences in Personality Conducive to Engagement in Aggression and Violence
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“…or exacerbation (McLaughlin, Borkovec, & Sibrava, 2007) of anxious mood following anxiety provocation, and to the maintenance of anger following provocation in lab-based studies (Bushman, 2002; Denson, Moulds, & Grisham, 2012; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; see Thomsen, 2006, for a review).”
BackgroundMood-Regulating Strategies Used By Athletes
Stevens, M. J., & Lane, A. M. (2001) · Cited by 47
Borders, A., Guillén, L. A., & Meyer, I. H. (2014) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000014527002 · Cited by 45
“In both survey and experimental studies, rumination is also associated with increased anger, hostility, and aggressive behavior (Borders, Earleywine, & Jajodia, 2010; Bushman, Pederson, Vasquez, Bonacci, & Miller, 2005; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
BackgroundPredicting and understanding behavioral volitions: the interplay between goals and behaviors
Perugini, M., & Conner, M. T. (2000) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/1099-0992(200009/10)30:5 · Cited by 290
Berger, J. L., Addis, M. E., Reilly, E. D., Syzdek, M. R., & Green, J. D. (2012) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2012.31.5.439 · Cited by 45
Forgiveness and its determinants depending on the interpersonal context of hurt
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“Similarly, ruminating about one’s own anger is associated with a higher probability of prolonged feelings of anger (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
BackgroundKube, T., & Glombiewski, J. (2020) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-020-10191-4 · Cited by 45
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“Rumination is defined as “thoughts and behaviors that focus the individual’s attention on the negative mood, the causes and consequences of this mood, and self-evaluations related to the mood” (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998, p. 790).”
BackgroundMedia, affect, concession, and agreement in negotiation: IM versus telephone
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Gender Differences in Selective Media Use for Mood Management and Mood Adjustment
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“As Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema (1998) showed, women tend to avoid feelings of anger with the aid of distraction, instead of focusing on the anger.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRumination and self-reflection in stress narratives and relations to psychological functioning
Marin, K. A., & Rotondo, E. K. (2015) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2015.1124122 · Cited by 44
“Still, in the emotion regulation literature, rumination is linked to occasions of anger and aggression (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1997).”
BackgroundDrawing to distract: Examining the psychological benefits of drawing over time.
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“Furthermore, previous research has demonstrated the visual imagery task to be effective in inducing a negative mood in participants (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodLaw, K. C., & Chapman, A. L. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.07.008 · Cited by 43
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Perfectionism, anger, and anger rumination
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“Compared to a person who is calm, the angry individual displays a narrower focus of attention and is more likely to blame others (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998 ).”
BackgroundPredicting anger in social anxiety: The mediating role of rumination
Trew, J. L., & Alden, L. E. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.07.019 · Cited by 43
Coloring Versus Drawing: Effects of Cognitive Demand on Mood Repair, Flow, and Enjoyment
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“Participants were then guided through a 3-min visual imagery task developed by Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema (1998) that asked them to focus on the sights, sounds, thoughts, and feelings evoked by the sad event they recalled.”
MethodThe bidirectional associations between state anger and rumination and the role of trait mindfulness
Borders, A., & Lu, S. (2016) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21693 · Cited by 46
“Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema (1998) induced angry mood and then had participants engage in self-focused rumination (e.g., “think about what kind of person you are”) or distraction.”
BackgroundLinking Motives and Emotions: A Test of McClelland's Hypotheses
Zurbriggen, E. L., & Sturman, T. S. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202287009 · Cited by 41
“The experimenter then read the following instructions (cf. Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998, p. 796): For the next few minutes, try to re-experience the memory you’ve retrieved as vividly as you can.”
MethodEmotional intractability: gender, anger, aggression and rumination in conflict
Coleman, P. T., Goldman, J. S., & Kugler, K. G. (2009) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/10444060910949595 · Cited by 41
“A series of empirical studies suggests that rumination increases the emotional experience of anger (e.g., Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Bushman et al., 2001; Bushman, 2002) as well as intentions to engage in aggressive behavior (e.g., Konecni, 1974; Bushman, 2002).”
BackgroundWisco, B. E., & Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-045078-0.00010-1 · Cited by 44
Self-citationThe Effects of Intrapersonal Anger and Its Regulation in Economic Bargaining
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“Relative to thinking about an anger-inducing event, distraction following anger provocation also reduces intrapersonal anger [28,39,40].”
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“Indeed, other research has found positive associations between rumination and anger responses (Martin & Dahlen, 2005; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
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“Usage of up-regulation may increase blood pressure (Butler, Lee, & Gross, 2009) and prolong the experience of negative emotions (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
BackgroundDenson, T. F., White, A. J., & Warburton, W. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.04.003 · Cited by 39
“Self-focused rumination is defined as thoughts and feelings about one’s thoughts, behavior, and negative emotions ( Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998 ).”
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“Because rumination is a strategy that is likely to increase emotional intensity (e.g., Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), and because depressed individuals are more motivated to increase sadness (Millgram et al., 2015), they might select rumination as a means to attain their emotion goals.”
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“It can also be defined as provocation-focused thought (see Bushman et al., 2005; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
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“‘‘angry,’’ ‘‘disgusted,’’ loathing,’’ and ‘‘scornful’’; see Rusting and Nolen-Hoseksema, 1998 ].”
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The Effect of Trait Rumination on Adaptation to Repeated Stress
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“Defined as the cognitions and negative affect induced by stressful or anger-provoking events, rumination is characterized by repetitive, unwanted thoughts about the causes and consequences of stressful events (15,16).”
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“…M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript conceptually similar to distraction, which leads to improved mood when experiencing sadness (Joormann, Siemer, & Gotlib, 2007), anger (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), and anxiety (Kalisch, Wiech, Herrmann, & Dolan, 2006).”
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“In general, shifting attention away from an emotional stimulus is an effective and comparatively fast strategy [26, 27] to reduce negative affect [27–33] and negative cognitions [34], particularly when stimuli are highly arousing [35].”
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“Here, and in studies using distraction manipulations (32,44,49), participants were instructed to direct their attention to stimuli that were unrelated to the angering episode.”
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“…of those responses to perceived provocation, both at the time of the event (e.g., judgments of responsibility and blame), or later (e.g., rumination and the rehearsal of grievances) which are known to intensify the experience of anger (e.g., Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Tice & Baumeister, 1993).”
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“While this study observed the association between a specific emotional state (e.g., anger) and the broad, dispositional construct of NA, it should be noted that rumination increases both depression-related and anger-related affect (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
BackgroundTrait anger moderates the impact of anger-associated rumination on social well-being
Siewert, K., Kubiak, T., Jonas, C., & Weber, H. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.030 · Cited by 33
“…of rumination about real, recalled, or imagined anger incidents have demonstrated that rumination intensifies anger (Ray, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2008; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Weber & Wiedig-Allison, 2007), increases hostile behavior (Bushman, 2002; Bushman, Bonacci, Pedersen, Vasquez, &…”
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“Studies have demonstrated that response styles modify the intensity of an angry mood, with rumination associated with increased, and distraction with decreased experience of anger during laboratory mood-induction protocols (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
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Effects of Anger Rumination on Different Scenarios of Anger: An Experimental Investigation
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Specific emotion and momentary emotion regulation in adolescence and early adulthood.
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The Temporal Dynamics of Anger: Phenomena, Processes, and Perplexities
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“In their study, students who were subjected to a demeaning evaluation of their work and then complied with the Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema (1998) rumination instructions were more aggressive in responding to a mild criticism than did students who had not been instructed to ruminate when both groups were tested 8 h late…”
BackgroundInfluentialValence of autobiographical memories: The role of mood, cognitive reappraisal, and suppression
Wisco, B. E., & Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.11.009 · Cited by 32
Self-citationBond, A. J., Ruaro, L., & Wingrove, J. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.002 · Cited by 34
Social anxiety and anger regulation
Weber, H., Wiedig‐Allison, M., Freyer‐Adam, J., & Gralher, J. (2004) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.528 · Cited by 32
“Rumination was found to worsen negative feelings, particularly depressed mood, but also feelings of anger (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Sukhodolsky, Golub, & Cromwell, 2001).”
BackgroundEmotion regulation and intragroup conflict: when more distracted minds prevail
Griffith, J. A., Connelly, S., & Thiel, C. E. (2014) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-04-2012-0036 · Cited by 38
“The use of distraction to regulate emotions was found, in some cases, to decrease anger and other negative emotions (Bushman, 2002; Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), perhaps because it focused attention toward less emotional aspects of the event.”
BackgroundInfluentialWhat coping tells about personality
Geisler, F. C. M., Wiedig‐Allison, M., & Weber, H. (2009) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.709 · Cited by 31
“These results are largely consistent with previous findings for angerrelated reactions (Kubiak et al., 2008; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
ResultThe impact of angry rumination on anger-primed cognitive control
Lievaart, M., Huijding, J., van der Veen, F. M., Hovens, J. E. J. M., & Franken, I. H. A. (2016) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.07.016 · Cited by 31
Anger Rumination and Mindfulness: Mediating Effects on Forgiveness
Anuncibay, R. D. L. F., Barbadillo, Á. G., Sánchez, D. O., Ordóñez-Camblor, N., & Pizarro-Ruiz, J. P. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18052668 · Cited by 31
Anger mediates the effect of ostracism on risk-taking
Svetieva, E., Zadro, L., Denson, T. F., Dale, E., O’Moore, K., & Zheng, W. Y. (2016) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2014.1003320 · Cited by 30
“Distraction, for example, can reduce feelings of anger (Denson, Moulds, and Grisham 2012; Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema 1998) as can cognitive reappraisal (Denson, Moulds, and Grisham 2012; Gross and John 2003), which is associated with less participation in risky behavior (Magar, Phillips, and Hosie…”
BackgroundFeeling bad? The “Power” of positive thinking may not apply to everyone
Ng, S. H., & Diener, E. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.01.020 · Cited by 31
Daily Use of Reappraisal Decreases Negative Emotions Toward Daily Unpleasant Events
Ng, S. H., & Diener, E. (2013) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2013.32.5.530 · Cited by 30
Anger response styles and reaction to provocation
Martin, R. C., & Dahlen, E. R. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.022 · Cited by 30
Variability in anger intensity profiles: Structure and predictive basis
Heylen, J., Verduyn, P., Mechelen, I. V., & Ceulemans, E. (2014) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.896783 · Cited by 28
“Linking up with previous research (Ray, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2008; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), this confirms that regulation strategies may cause an overall shrinking or expanding of an anger experience.”
Rönnlund, M., & Carelli, M. G. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01356 · Cited by 29
Efinger, L., Thuillard, S., & Dan‐Glauser, E. (2019) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2019.1597859 · Cited by 29
“…Inagaki, Tabibnia, & Crockett, 2011; McRae et al., 2010; Sheppes, Catran, & Meiran, 2009; Sheppes & Meiran, 2007; Strauss, Ossenfort, & Whearty, 2016), or an inefficient strategy (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), possibly depending on the individuals’ underlying attitudes (Wolgast & Lundh, 2017).”
Mathes, B. M., Kennedy, G. A., Morabito, D. M., Martin, A. D., Bedford, C. E., & Schmidt, N. B. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.029 · Cited by 29
Processing memories of anger-eliciting events: The effect of asking ‘why’ from a distance
Wimalaweera, S., & Moulds, M. L. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.12.006 · Cited by 29
Hemodynamic profile, compensation deficit, and ambulatory blood pressure
Ottaviani, C., Shapiro, D., Goldstein, I. B., James, J. E., & Weiss, R. (2006) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00378.x · Cited by 29
“After a stressful event, people may ruminate about causes and consequences of their distress (Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), and such responses have been shown to perpetuate cardiovascular activation (Glynn, Christenfeld, & Gerin, 2002; Vitaliano, Russo,…”
BackgroundFink, L., & Drake, J. E. (2016) · Empirical Studies of the Arts · doi:10.1177/0276237416636368 · Cited by 12
“While this has not been examined with flow, recent research on creativity supports this idea: Stephenson and Rosen (2015) found that both writing a poem about nature and a negative life event resulted in increases in creativity (as measured by a self-report creativity measure).”
MethodResultA social neuroscience perspective on the neurobiological bases of aggression.
Denson, T. (2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12346-006 · Cited by 21
“(Bushman et al., 2005; Denson et al., 2006; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998 ), during the”
MethodInfluentialCameron, S., Brown, V. J., Dritschel, B., Power, K., & Cook, M. (2017) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12123 · Cited by 32
“Similar links are reported by others (Bushman, Bonacci, Pederson, Vasquez, & Miller, 2005; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998) but not by all (Lievaart, Huijding, van der Veen, Hovens, & Franken, 2017).”
BackgroundResultThe effects of self-critical rumination on shame and stress: an experimental study
Milia, C., Kolubinski, D. C., & Spada, M. M. (2020) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465820000727 · Cited by 37
Maxwell, J. P., Moores, E., & Chow, C. C. F. (2007) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2008.9671810 · Cited by 29
“…competition were collected in this study; therefore, the conclusions drawn are relatively speculative at this point, although they are consistent with hypotheses set out in the introduction and experimental research conducted by others (e .g ., Bushman, 2002; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998) .”
ResultWisco, B. E., & Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2009) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-009-0096-y · Cited by 28
“These Likert-type scales have been used extensively in previous research as measures of state-like mood (e.g, Lyubomirsky and Nolen-Hoeksema 1993, 1995; Lyubomirsky et al. 1998; Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema 1998 ).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationThe effect of affect: How affective style determines attitudes towards the EU
Nielsen, J. H. (2017) · European Union Politics · doi:10.1177/1465116517741380 · Cited by 27
“Concealing and EU attitudes: Concealing individuals may experience negative consequences for their well-being due to rumination and prolonged negative emotional states (e.g. Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
BackgroundCaprara, M., Gerbino, M., Mebane, M., & Ramírez-Uclés, I. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.927648 · Cited by 36
Metadata
- Authors
- Rusting, C. L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1998
- Volume
- 74
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 790-803
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2049614219
- Cited by
- 641
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 39
- FWCI
- 12.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- anger, rumination, distraction, mood regulation, gender differences, emotion regulation strategies
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Anger, Attention, Defense Mechanisms, Depression, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Models, Psychological, Students
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