Cited by 642Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesEmotions and Moral BehaviorNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

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Regulating responses to anger: Effects of rumination and distraction on angry mood.

Rusting, Cheryl L., Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan·1998·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.790

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Abstract

Previous research has found that self-focused rumination maintains or increases depressed mood, whereas distraction decreases depressed mood (S. Nolen-Hoeksema & J. Morrow, 1993; S. Nolen-Hoeksema, J. Morrow, & B. L. Fredrickson, 1993). The present series of experiments examined these mood regulation strategies in the context of an angry mood. In Experiments 1 and 3, rumination increased anger, whereas distraction decreased or had no effect on anger. In Experiments 2 and 4, women were more likely to choose to ruminate when in a neutral mood but to distract themselves following induction of an angry mood. Men were equally likely to choose rumination or distraction, regardless of mood condition. The results are interpreted and discussed within the framework of an associative-network model of anger.

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Background
Rumination but not distraction increases eating-related symptoms in anorexia and bulimia nervosa.
Naumann, E., Tuschen‐Caffier, B., Voderholzer, U., Caffier, D., & Svaldi, J. (2015) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000046 · Cited by 68
Rumination and Psychopathology: Are Anger and Depressive Rumination Differentially Associated With Internalizing and Externalizing Psychopathology?
du Pont, A., Rhee, S. H., Corley, R. P., Hewitt, J. K., & Friedman, N. P. (2017) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702617720747 · Cited by 72
“These findings also build on the anger rumination literature, which has predominately focused on anger rumination’s associations with anger (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), aggression (Denson, Pedersen, Friese, Hahm, & Roberts, 2011), and symptoms of psychopathology (e.g., symptoms of borderline…”
Background
Cognition and Emotion
de Houwer, J., & Hermans, D. (2010) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203853054 · Cited by 73
Roles of Anger and Rumination in the Relationship Between Self-Compassion and Forgiveness
Wu, Q., Chi, P., Zeng, X., Lin, X., & Du, H. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-0971-7 · Cited by 79
“The direction from rumination to anger in this indirect path was consistent with previous findings (Ray et al. 2008; Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema 1998).”
Result
Shame and borderline personality features: The potential mediating role of anger and anger rumination.
Peters, J. R., Geiger, P. J., Smart, L. M., & Baer, R. A. (2013) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/per0000022 · Cited by 67
Anger expression and risk of coronary heart disease: Evidence from the Nova Scotia Health Survey
Davidson, K. W., & Mostofsky, E. (2010) · American Heart Journal · doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2009.11.007 · Cited by 70
Rumination as a Mediator of Chronic Stress Effects on Hypertension: A Causal Model
Gerin, W., Zawadzki, M. J., BROSSCHOT, J. F., Thayer, J. F., Christenfeld, N. J. S., Campbell, T. S., & Smyth, J. M. (2012) · International Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1155/2012/453465 · Cited by 77
“[41] C.”
Feelings don't come easy: studies on the effortful nature of feelings.
Kron, A., Schul, Y., Cohen, A., & Hassin, R. R. (2010) · Journal of experimental psychology. General · doi:10.1037/a0020008 · Cited by 81
Reversing the negative psychological sequelae of exclusion: Inclusion is ameliorative but not protective against the aversive consequences of exclusion.
Tang, H. H. Y., & Richardson, R. (2012) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0029521 · Cited by 66
The Effect of Induced Positive and Negative Emotion and Openness-to-Feeling in Student’s Consumer Decision Making
Chuang, S., & Lin, H. (2007) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-007-9049-6 · Cited by 64
“Pray for Those Who Mistreat You”: Effects of Prayer on Anger and Aggression
Bremner, R. H., Koole, S. L., & Bushman, B. J. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211402215 · Cited by 71
“; see Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
BackgroundInfluential
A Closer Look at Reactions to Realistic Recruitment Messages
Reeve, C. L. L., Highhouse, S., & Brooks, M. E. (2006) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2006.00330.x · Cited by 64
Chronic anger as a precursor to adult antisocial personality features: The moderating influence of cognitive control.
Hawes, S. W., Perlman, S. B., Byrd, A. L., Raine, A., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. A. (2015) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000129 · Cited by 66
“As an affective phenomenon, it has been described as an emotion (Harmon-Jones, 2004) and mood state (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), while at other times it has been more generally referred to as a temperamental or trait-like characterisitic (Wilkowski & Robinson, 2008).”
Alcohol‐aggression expectancies and dispositional rumination moderate the effect of alcohol consumption on alcohol‐related aggression and hostility
Borders, A., Barnwell, S. S., & Earleywine, M. (2007) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.20187 · Cited by 62
“Recent research suggests that rumination exacerbates angry mood, increases the accessibility of hostile thoughts, and increases physiological arousal [Ayduk et al., 2002; Pedersen et al., unpublished data; Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998].”
Background
Cultural differences in emotion regulation during self-reflection on negative personal experiences
Tsai, W., & Lau, A. S. (2012) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.715080 · Cited by 63
“This 3-item composite has been used extensively in studies of rumination (eg, Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993 , 1995 ; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998 ; Wisco & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2009 ).”
Lashing Out after Stewing over Public Insults: The Effects of Public Provocation, Provocation Intensity, and Rumination on Triggered Displaced Aggression
Vasquez, E. A., Pedersen, W. C., Bushman, B. J., Kelley, N. J., Demeestere, P., & Miller, N. (2012) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21453 · Cited by 61
Anger Expression and Sleep Quality in Patients With Coronary Heart Disease: Findings From the Heart and Soul Study
Caska, C. M., Hendrickson, B. E., Wong, M. H., Ali, S., Neylan, T. C., & Whooley, M. A. (2009) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e31819b6a08 · Cited by 64
“Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema also found that ruminating after a procedure intended to create angry feelings significantly increased the ratings and intensity of anger (45).”
Background
Rumination is independently associated with poor psychological health: Comparing emotion regulation strategies
Zawadzki, M. J. (2015) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2015.1026904 · Cited by 78
Forgiveness and psychological adjustment following interpersonal transgressions: A longitudinal analysis
Orth, U., Berking, M., Walker, N., Meier, L. L., & Znoj, H. (2007) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.07.003 · Cited by 61
“Moreover, ruminative symptoms are a factor maintaining and increasing anger and revenge motivation (McCullough et al., 1998; Paleari, Regalia, & Fincham, 2005; Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998 ), which inhibit forgiveness.”
Background
Anger Rumination Scale: Validation in Mexico
Andrade, N. A. O., Alcázar-Olán, R. J., Matías, O. M. P., Guerrero, A. M. R., & Espinosa, A. D. C. D. (2017) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2016.105 · Cited by 59
“…(Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000), pessimistic thoughts (Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995), impaired concentration (Lyubomirsky, Kasri, & Zehm, 2003), anger (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), hostility (Anestis, Anestis, Selby, & Joiner, 2009), and aggression (Bushman, 2002; Bushman, Bonacci, Pedersen,…”
Deconstructing Anger in the Human Brain
Gilam, G., & Hendler, T. (2015) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2015_408 · Cited by 57
Sex Differences and Response Styles: Subtypes of Rumination and Associations with Depressive Symptoms
López, C. M., Driscoll, K. A., & Kistner, J. A. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410802575412 · Cited by 63
“Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema ( 1998 ) found that, in a sample of adults, men are more likely than women to ruminate in response to anger.”
Background
Anger After Childbirth: An Overlooked Reaction to Postpartum Stressors
Graham‐Engeland, J. E., Lobel, M., & DeLuca, R. S. (2002) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/1471-6402.00061 · Cited by 58
“Anger in pregnancy may also affect the health of the mother or fetus, perhaps via avoidant coping behavior, which is high in angry women (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998) and predictive of greater maternal distress (Lobel, Yali, Zhu, DeVincent, & Meyer, 2002).”
Background
Chronic Embitterment and Organisational Justice
Sensky, T. (2009) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000270914 · Cited by 57
“Ruminations are also commonly associated with anger [”
Background
Aggression proneness: Transdiagnostic processes involving negative valence and cognitive systems
Verona, E., & Bresin, K. (2015) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.03.008 · Cited by 64
Speaking to the heart: Social exclusion and reliance on feelings versus reasons in persuasion
Lu, F., & Sinha, J. (2017) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2017.03.004 · Cited by 58
STARBRIGHT World: Effects of an Electronic Network on the Social Environment of Children With Life-Threatening Illnesses
Battles, H. B., & Wiener, L. S. (2002) · Children s Health Care · doi:10.1207/s15326888chc3101_4 · Cited by 57
“Anger has been shown to be reduced by distraction (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
Background
Take a break! or not? The impact of mindsets during breaks on negotiation processes and outcomes
Harinck, F., & Dreu, C. K. W. D. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.12.009 · Cited by 56
“Rumination is defined as thoughts and behaviors that focus the individuals’ attention on the negative mood, the causes and consequences of this mood, and selfevaluations related to the mood (Rusting & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998).”
BackgroundInfluential
Anger and its consequences for judgment and behavior: Recent developments in social and political psychology
Lambert, A. J., Eadeh, F. R., & Hanson, E. J. (2019) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2018.12.001 · Cited by 57
Cognitive Risks in Developmental Psychopathology
Hankin, B. L., Snyder, H. R., & Gulley, L. D. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy308 · Cited by 55
“Moreover, Bushman et al. (2005) and Rusting and Nolen-Hoeksema (1998) found that distraction was not only associated with reports of decreased anger, but also better problem solving abilities.”
Background

Authors: Rusting, C. L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1998
Volume: 74
Issue: 3
Pages: 790-803
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.790
OpenAlex: W2049614219
Cited by: 641
References: 73
Citations by year: 2026: 4 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 39
FWCI: 12.75
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords: anger, rumination, distraction, mood regulation, gender differences, emotion regulation strategies
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Anger, Attention, Defense Mechanisms, Depression, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Models, Psychological, Students

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Regulating responses to anger: Effects of rumination and distraction on angry mood.

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