The sounds of social life: A psychometric analysis of students' daily social environments and natural conversations.

“, ‘excited’), and first-person singulars [88], and they mention more psychological and social processes [34] (e.”

“Women’s greater use of pronouns mirrored previous work, and the finding that women used more certainty words parallels earlier discoveries that women used more intensive adverbs (Biber et al., 1998; McMillan et al., 1977; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Mulac et al., 2000).”

“Whereas experience sampling studies track the agent's subjective, experiential account of an event (e.g., Bolger et al., 2003; Pawlik & Buse, 1982), the EAR provides the " outside " perspective of an unobtrusive observer (Mehl & Pennebaker , 2003b).”

“The power of a more naturalistic approach is demonstrated by a series of recent studies by Mehl and colleagues, who have used the Electronically Activated Recorder (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003) to Address correspondence to: Tal Yarkoni, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, UCB 345, University of Colorado at Boulder,…”

“Such smartphone data can be used to capture many behaviors, which we have organized here in terms of a framework derived from previous research on acoustic observations: social interactions, daily activities, and mobility patterns (Mehl, Gosling, & Pennebaker, 2006; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).”

“These results which we obtained are in-line with that of results found in social psychology studies [21].”

“For example, personality impressions based on audio recordings of daily life (mostly uncontrolled; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003) should be more accurate on evaluative traits such as Agreeableness and Emotional Stability than impressions based on more controlled contexts (e.g., websites).”

“…using automated text analysis have uncovered consistent patterns in language style across many different identity markers, including age (Pennebaker & Stone, 2003), psychological health (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Stirman & Pennebaker, 2001), and sex (Newman, Groom, Handleman, & Pennebaker, 2008).”

“The very recent literature includes signs that this situation may be starting to change (e.g., Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Wolf, Borkenau, Angleitner, Riemann, & Spinath, 2004), which is good, because when behavior is directly measured on more than one occasion, illuminating analyses become possible.”

“This method has been shown to be highly unobtrusive and to produce minimal behavioral reactivity (Mehl and Pennebaker, 2003).”

“Word usage appears characterized by considerable within-person stability, making it an appropriate variable for individual differences research (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Pennebaker & King, 1999).”

“In a series of prior EAR studies, Mehl and colleagues have shown that a broad spectrum of acoustically detectable, daily behaviors (e.g., talking, listening to music, attending a class, laughing, arguing) can be assessed reliably and with low levels of reactivity from EAR-recorded ambient sounds (Mehl & Holleran, 2007…”

“Similarly but more recently, Mehl and his colleagues (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Mehl, Pennebaker, Crow, Dabbs, & Price, 2001; Mehl et al., 2007) have used the electronically activated recorder (EAR) to record verbal behaviour and environmental sounds in participants’ daily lives.”

“…from the sampled ambient sounds (Mehl & Holleran, 2007), (b) that these behaviors show large between-person variability and good temporal stability (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003), and (c) that they have good convergent validity with theoretically related measures such as the Big Five (Mehl, Gosling, &…”

“Apart from apparent gender differences in overall pronoun use (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Newman, Groom, Handelman, & Pennebaker, 2008) and possibly inherent gender differences in communal orientation (Taylor, 2006), the Michigan HF studies found marital functioning more important to the survival of…”

“These style indicators give psychological cues to people’s cognitive and emotional states, motivations, and social relationships (for review, see Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Tausczik & Pennebaker, 2010).”

“Researchers have begun to use methods such as laboratory-based (Borkenau, Mauer, Riemann, Spinath, & Angleitner, 2004; Funder, Furr, & Colvin, 2000) or naturalistic observation (Mehl, Gosling, & Pennebaker, in press; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003 ), linguistic analyses (Pennebaker & King, 1999), informant reports (Vazire, i…”

“5%) in [12].”

“These devices have been used to monitor non-verbal depressive behaviors (e.g., sighing) and the level and frequency of social interactions among adults (Mehl and Pennebaker 2003; Robbins et al. 2011).”

“Other behavioral methodologies might be profitably used to study age differences in variability, such as the electronically activated recorder, which records multiple audio samples of a person’s immediate environment each day (e.g., Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Vazire & Mehl, 2008).”

“…2001), and an increasing array of “unobtrusive measures” that include eavesdropping on strangers in public places (e.g., Dunbar et al. 1997) and an Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR) that integrates experience sampling method with novel audio-recording devices (Mehl and Pennebaker 2003).”

“Similar variability in rates of oral participation in the university classroom by Chinese students in the US has been documented by Liu (2000), while consistency in the amount of interaction an individual engages in has also been found among American college students (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).”

“, 32% of all sound files) that can be used in empirical analyses see (70,73).”

“EAR = electronically activated recorder; SECSI = Social Environment Coding of Sound Inventory.”

“Three of the transcription sets were from studies where participants’ personalities were determined using the Big Five Inventory (Fellows, 2009; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003a; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003b).”

“This method was previously used in online contexts such as MySpace (Pfeil, Arjan, & Zaphiris, 2009), gender differences in language use (Newman et al., 2008), students’ daily conversations (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003), and Internet communications (Owen, Yarbrough, Vaga, & Tucker, 2003).”

“These models are based on essays written by and spoken text of psychology students [8, 14].”

“This approach was previously used to analyze swearing patterns in social contexts (e.g., Holtgraves, 2011; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).”

“…between personality and language use in different types of text corpora ranging from e-mails (Oberlander & Gill, 2006), to personal narratives (Hirsch & Peterson, 2009), recordings of conversations (Mehl, Gosling, & Pennebaker, 2006; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003), and personal blogs (Yarkoni, 2010).”

“The data from these participants were gathered as a part of three different studies (Sample 1, n ¼ 52; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Sample 2, n ¼ 96; Mehl et al., 2006; see also Mehl, 2006; Sample 3, n ¼ 80; Vazire & Mehl, 2008; see also Holtzman, Vazire, & Mehl, 2010; Mehl, Vazire, Holleran, & Clark,…”

“Given that the overall incidence of emotion words in our studies was comparable to that found in other studies (e.g., Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Pennebaker & Lay, 2002), these data suggest that regardless of cultural norms, the use of emotion words in everyday speech is extremely low.”

“We have already noted the preponderance of coarse language in teenagers [13, 14, 15].”

“With its high-frequency sampling (roughly 70 clips per day), the EAR provides an acoustic log of a person’s day as it naturally unfolds ( Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003a, 2003b ).”

“McEnery, 2006; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Mehl, Vazire, Ramirez-Esparza, Statcher, & Pennebaker, 2007).”

“…compliance was related to September 15 and 16 being the first weekend after the 9 / 11 attacks and , therefore , likely a time of personal coping ( Mehl & Pennebaker , 2003a ) or whether it was related to aspects of participants ' schedules that made wearing the EAR more bothersome over the…”

“Studies using LIWC have reported good internal consistency across time, topic, and text source (Pennebaker and King, 1999; Mehl and Pennebaker, 2003).”

“Those that have, suggest that active socializing behaviors (e.g., talking to others) are highly stable over a 4-week period (test-retest reliability of r ¼ 0.63), and account for about a third of students' waking hours (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).”

“For example, Mehl and Pennebaker (2003) found that the amount of time participants spent talking to others and socializing (assessed from monitoring over two weekdays) had test-retest reliabilities of r = .63 and .73 over a period of 4 weeks.”

“The sampled ambient sounds are then coded for aspects of participant’s moment-to-moment social behaviors, interactions, and environments (Mehl, Gosling, & Pennebaker, 2006; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Mehl, Vazire, Ramirez-Esparza, Slatcher, & Pennebaker, 2007).”

“This is in contrast to a study of linguistic stability in everyday life (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).”

“Mehl and Pennebaker [16] used a similar approach though their analysis did not examine the relationship between overlap and interpersonal outcomes.”

“Making sense of social interaction behavior is key to advancing our comprehension of human psychology because much of human behavior occurs in a social context (e.g., adults spend 32%–75% of their waking time with others; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).”

“It then outputs the percentage of words in the document belonging to each category [87].”

“Another alternative to partially protect participant privacy and confidentiality during the recording process is to only analyze shorts samples from the raw longform audio data, as with the electronically activated recorder (EAR; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Mehl, 2017).”

“Positive emotion word use increases with age (Pennebaker & Stone, 2003) and is higher in women’s versus men’s naturalistic speech (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).”

“Participants’ interactions, locations, and nonverbal emotional expressions were coded using the Social Environmental Coding of Sound Inventory (SECSI; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).”

“These same benefits may be afforded to scholars given both the increasing access to such information and advances in technology to capture it (see also, Back et al., 2010; Cohn, Mehl, & Pennebaker, 2004; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003b).”

“Similarly, Laserna et al. (2014) analyzed transcripts of conversations collected by 263 American participants from five different studies (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003a, 2003b; Mehl, Gosling & Pennebaker, 2006; Fellows, 2009; Baddeley, Pennebaker & Beevers, 2013), which were collected via electronically…”

“Increased use of these words is associated with greater attention toward people (Pennebaker, 2011), as well as social interaction and affiliation (Chung & Pennebaker, 2007; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Pennebaker, Mehl, & Niederhoffer, 2003).”

“Mehl and Pennebaker [37] found these results in a naturalistic conversation setting, and Newman et al.”

“Linguistic studies have shown that while an individual’s language use is stable over time, the way individuals communicate is also influenced by their context and local settings [33].”

“…method for the content analysis of writing samples (Liehr, Mehl, Summers, & Pennebaker, 2004; Pennebaker & Francis, 1996) and verbal communications (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Mehl, Pennebaker, Crow, Dabbs & Price, 2001; Owen, Yarbrough, Vaga, & Tucker, 2003; Pennebaker & Lay, 2002; Stone &…”

“We suspect that social contexts continue to influence cognitive vulnerability even into adulthood, but their influence is typically masked by the continuity and stability of the environment over time (e.g., Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003).”

“To date, only a few studies have directly examined individual differences in the places people visit (Mehl et al., 2006; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003) and the relationship between spending time in specific types of places and subjective well-being (Sandstrom et al., 2017; Tsapeli & Musolesi, 2015).”

“In the third coding task, coders used an adapted version of the Social Environment Coding of Sound Inventory (SECSI; Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003) coding scheme to code for concrete activities (e.g., on a computer), locations (e.g., indoors), and emotion expressions (e.g., laughing) in each 30-s…”