A review of the tip-of-the-tongue experience

“This is just the type of information that remains available in tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states (for a review, see Brown, 1991).”

“…5 項目を 9 件法で回答する ④ GCT を実施する Result and Discussion GCT の成績を従属変数、促進焦点スコアと予防焦点スコア、肯定的な感情、否定的な感情を予 測子とした重回帰分析を実施したところ、以下の結果が得られた 促進焦点スコアの正の主効果が得られた(b = 0.27, F(1,34) = 10.96, p<.003) 抑制焦点スコアの負の主効果が得られた(b = -0.49, F(1,34) = 9.73, p<.004) 肯定的な感情と否定的な感情はそれらの主効果に影響を与えず、主効果は見られなかった …”

“and Brown (1988) found that repetition priming of picture naming was not affected by delay, whereas episodic recogni­”

“... information in memory impairs recall of other information, there is substantial disagreement on the theoretical interpretation of the impairment (regarding part-set cuing, see Basden, Basden, & Galloway, 1977; Sloman, Bower, & Roher, 1991; regarding retroactive interference, see Greeno, James, DaPolito, & Poison,…”

“TOT retrieval blocks are often resolved quickly: Several studies have shown that roughly half of the soughtafter target items are retrieved within a minute or so after the onset of blocking, although some items may not be retrieved until days later (see A. S. Brown, 1991, pp. 211-213).”

“A related phenomenon to FOKs is tip-of-the-tongue states, in which an item cannot be recalled despite a feeling that retrieval is possible [29].”

“Buckner and Carroll (2007) proposed that the default network is responsible for self-projection—mentally transporting oneself into alternate times, locations, or perspectives—as manifested in episodic memory, navigation, prospection (i.”

“Although dramatic, TOTs occur relatively infrequently, approximately once or twice a week (A. Brown, 1991), and involve failed, rather than successful, lexical retrieval.”

“failures in normal subjects tend to be phonological rather than semantic ( Brown, 1991;”

“23 “tip of the tongue” phenomena − in which you know that you know something, but cannot retrieve it (Brown 1991; Brown & McNeill 1966).”

“…on metacognition and uncertainty monitoring has been done to explore humans' capacity to recognize uncertainty and to know when they do not know (Brown et al. 1982; Dunlosky & Nelson 1997; Flavell 1979; Koriat 1993; Metcalfe & Shimamura 1994; Nelson 1992, Nelson & Dunlosky 1991; Nelson & Narens…”

“The 112 picture names with the lowest frequency counts had an average frequency count of 3.79 (SD 3.31), and the 113 picture names with the highest frequency counts averaged 61.37 (SD 71.31), which is (as in Experiment 1) higher than that of a typical TOT study (A. S. Brown, 1991).”

“Brown & McNeill, 1966), found that more TOT states were elicited for words with sparse rather than dense neighborhoods. As in Vitevitch (1997), it was hypothesized that words with many phonological neighbors receive sufficient amounts of activation from formally related neighbors to be completely retrieved from the le…”

“, 1986; for review, see Brown, A.S., 1991). These characteristics may act as evidence for the answer; when enough of these characteristics are accessed, the TOT experience leads the participant to believe the answer is close. For example, Maril et al. (2001) used the conjunction of two descriptors to evoke a third ite…”

“…explanation of TOTs, in which TOTs are caused by blocking of the intended word by a more accessible alternative word that comes to mind first (e.g., A. S. Brown, 1979; Jones, 1989; Jones & Langford , 1987; Reason & Lucas, 1984; Roediger, 1974; Woodworm, 1929; see A. S. Brown, 1991, for a review).”

“The partial information that is retrieved in a TOT state is accompanied by a “feeling of knowing” the word and sometimes by the presence of interlopers, or words that sound similar to but are not thedesired targetword (A. S. Brown, 1991;R. Brown & McNeill, 1966).”

“Speakers in a TOT state can report, with a probability above chance, information about the word form—for example, the length in syllables and the word onset (A. S. Brown, 1991; R. Brown & McNeill, 1966).”

“Tip of the tongue phenomena indicate the graded nature of representations (Brown, 1991).”

“…in normal subjects tend to be phonological rather than semantic (Brown and McNeill 1966; Jones and Langford 1987; Kohn et al. 1987; Jones 1989; Brown 1991; Meyer and Bock 1992), and there is some evidence that preventing gesturing increases retrieval failures in the TOT situation…”

“Parallels might be drawn between the gradual dissipation of retrieval inhibition over time with the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery from retroactive interference (Brown, 1991; Drosopoulos, Schulze, Fischer, & Born, 2007; Postman, Stark, & Fraser, 1968; Underwood, 1948; Wheeler, 1995), although the exact mechanism t…”

“, ®rst phoneme, number of syllables, stress location) (Brown, 1991; Schwartz, 1999).”

“…253 3 Rather than reflecting a failure to retrieve the complete phonological form of a target word, it has been suggested that TOTs occur when speakers activate words associated with the target and these non-target words block or inhibit retrieval of the target (Brown, 1991; Jones, 1989).”

“Metacognitive experiences predict memory, for example, FOK (Koriat & Levy-Sadot, 2001), TOT states (e.g., A. S. Brown, 1991), and “feelings of familiarity” (e.g., Whittlesea & Williams, 2000), when metacognition occurs before or after the retrieval attempt has been initiated.”

“The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon occurs when a speaker is unable to access stored information in memory but has a “feeling of knowing” (Brown, 1991).”

“TOT states are common experiences in the L1 (e.g., Brown, 1991; Brown & McNeill, 1966; Schwartz, 2002) as well as in the L2 (e.g., Ecke, in press; Ecke & Garrett, 1998; Gollan & Silverberg, 2001).”

“Moreover, evidence from speech errors suggests that word memory has at least a strong positional component (e.g., Brown & McNeill, 1966; Brown, 1991; Kohn et al., 1987; Koriat & Lieblich, 1974; Koriat & Lieblich, 1975; MacKay, 1970; Rubin, 1975; Tweney et al., 1975).”

“When subjects are in this state, they can only retrieve partial phonological information, e.g., initial phoneme or number of syllables (see Brown, 1991, for a review).”

“Two different kinds of pictures corresponding to the same iconic signs were used, for example, given the sign CAT (see Fig. 1) there was one picture in which the iconic property of the sign was made salient (e.g., a cat’s face with its whiskers prominently displayed), and one in which the iconic property was not salie…”

“For instance, a prominent example of the sin of blocking is the `tip-of-the tongue’ state, where people cannot produce a word or name even though they feel that they are on the verge of recovering it (for reviews, see Brown 1991; Schwartz 1999).”

“Cues can also help normal participants in the tip-of-the-tongue state (Brown, 1991).”

“A number of authors have noticed the parallel between anomic word-®nding diculties [33] and the tip-of-the-tongue (ToT) state that can occur for normal subjects [6,46,47].”

“…within the mental lexicon [1]; whenever we try to retrieve a name of someone we know which is on ‘‘The tip of our tongue’’, we invoke a search within the phonological network [2]; and finally, whenever we are confronted with a problem, we invoke a search process throughout the problem space [3].”

“…considered to be a breakdown of word form retrieval, limited word form information is often available: people are quite good at guessing the initial sound and the length of the word on the tip of the tongue (Brown, 1991; Brown and McNeill, 1966; Miozzo and Caramazza, 1997; Vigliocco et al., 1997).”

“visibility test used by Brown and Hagoort (1993), participants carried out a forced-choice recognition task.”

“Brown, 1991; R. Brown & McNeill, 1966; Koriat & Lieblich, 1974).”

“…such as the inability to produce a particular piece of information (as in the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon; e.g., Brown and McNeill, 1966; Brown, 1991) or the realization that one’s attention has turned away from the task at hand (as in mind-wandering; e.g., Wegner, 1997; Schooler et…”

“Lawless and Engen (1977) described this as the 'tip-of-the-nose' phenomenon; that is, as the olfactory analog to the tip-of-the-tongue state (Brown and McNeill, 1966; Brown, 1991).”

“It occurs when `We are sure that the information is in memory but are temporarily unable to access it ’ (Brown, 1991, p. 204). This can be a very useful phenomenon for the experimental psychologist. As Brown (1991) noted, `Because word retrieval is usually so rapid, examining, in a temporary `` holding pattern ’’ impo…”

“A characteristic (almost defining) feature of the performance seen in these cases is that speakers have access to the meaning they intend to express but they fail to retrieve the corresponding word (Brown, 1991).”

“# + - +,%% & $ $' 0 & N;% ;,% $%% $,% =%% - > ) 5 0 23.”

“temporarily unable to access it’ (Brown, 1991, p. 204). A typical method of inducing ToT states in adults involves presenting participants with definitions of words and asking them to produce the word. The adult literature contains conflicting findings regarding the function of gesture, with evidence both for and agai…”

“Another major landmark in the study of TOTs was an important review paper by A. S. Brown (1991) , who summarized and organized the relevant research that had been done on TOTs during the 25-year period after R. Brown and McNeill (1966).”

“…the First, the TOT represents a conflict between the meta- target items were proper names (people or places), becognitive level—a person’s confidence in the existence cause proper names are frequently associated with TOT of knowledge—and the cognitive level—his or her actual states (Brown, 1991).”

“For example, Brown [73] reported that the “tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon increases with age, reflecting a certain degree of naming deficit (anomia), while Ardila [74] described decreases in lexical access associated with age as measured by the vocabulary subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.”

“…accompanied by a retrieval of the whole word, and FOK retrieval attempts may elicit poor partial phonetic information relative to TOT trials, as suggested by robust behavioral findings about partial phonological information retrieved while in a TOT state (for review of evidence, see Brown, 1991).”

“The tip-of-the-tongue experience (TOT) is a retrieval failure coupled with a strong feeling of being on the verge of recall (see A.S. Brown, 1991).”

“However, there are also data from the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (Brown & McNeil, 1966; see A. Brown, 1991, for review), reaction time experiments (e.g.”

“TOT states are states in which we ‘‘are sure that the information [about the word we are looking for] is in memory but are temporarily unable to access it’’ (Brown, 1991, p. 204).”

“Traditional statistical procedures cannot be applied to the results presented in Table 1 because of the “fragmentary data problem” noted in connection with TOT studies (see A. S. Brown, 1991): Each cell is based on a different combination of participants and items.”

“Although an extensive body of research literature exists, age differences in the TOT experience have remained a relatively neglected topic (Brown, 1991) despite the frequency of self-reported memory failures among older adults (Cavanaugh, Grady, & Perlmutter, 1983; Perlmutter, 1978; Skinner, 1983; Zelinski, Gilewski,…”

“The nature of the form overlap between prime and target words was similar to that found between the target and intruding words in malapropisms and TOT states: shared initial and final segments (Brown, 1991; Garnham, Shillcock, Brown, Mill, & Cutler, 1982).”

“However, sophisticated guessing hypotheses (Brown, 1991) have undermined this TOT evidence.”