The DOI matches its Crossref record; 36 of the 36 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects.
Abstract
Although interaction effects are frequently found in experimental studies, field researchers report considerable difficulty in finding theorized moderator effects. Previous discussions of this discrepancy have considered responsible factors including differences in measurement error and use of nonlinear scales. In this article we demonstrate that the differential efficiency of experimental and field tests of interactions is also attributable to the differential residual variances of such interactions once the component main effects have been partialed out. We derive an expression for this residual variance in terms of the joint distribution of the component variables and explore how properties of the distribution affect the efficiency of tests of moderator effects. We show that tests of interactions in field studies will often have less than 20% of the efficiency of optimal experimental tests, and we discuss implications for the design of field studies.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“First, this study involves a relatively small sample size, which limits power to detect significant moderation effects (McClelland & Judd, 1993).”
From Who Benefits Most from a Brief Mindfulness Intervention to Reduce Anxiety During Stereotactic Breast Biopsy: the Moderating Effect of Trait Mindfulness, Spiritual Well-being, and Distress Tolerance (2021) · cites this paper as McClelland & Judd, 1993
In the citing paper
“This consistent pattern of findings is noteworthy given the acknowledged difficulty in detecting moderation within field settings (McClelland and Judd, 1993).”
From Narcissistic Leaders and Their Victims: Followers Low on Self-Esteem and Low on Core Self-Evaluations Suffer Most (2018) · cites this paper as McClelland and Judd, 1993
In the citing paper
“An additional advantage of high-risk designs is that the greater variability in vulnerability constructs they often afford yields greater statistical power to detect the presence of moderating effects by reducing standard errors without compromising parameter estimates (Carter & Garber, 2011; McClelland & Judd, 1993).”
From A Latent Structure Analysis of Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression in Adolescence (2019) · cites this paper as McClelland & Judd, 1993
Citations
Cites
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173 · Cited by 91,532
Multiple regression: testing and interpreting interactions
(1992) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.29-3352 · Cited by 36,647
Pearlin, L. I., Menaghan, E. G., Lieberman, M. A., & Mullan, J. T. (1981) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2136676 · Cited by 6,289
Measures of Multivariate Skewness and Kurtosis with Applications
Mardia, K. V. (1970) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/57.3.519 · Cited by 5,125
Interaction Effects in Multiple Regression.
Richardson, S. T., Jacard, J., Turrisi, R., & Wan, C. K. (1991) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.2307/2348747 · Cited by 3,310
Evans, M. G. (1985) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(85)90002-0 · Cited by 1,550
In Defense of Multiplicative Terms in Multiple Regression Equations
Friedrich, R. J. (1982) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2110973 · Cited by 1,052
Statistical tests for moderator variables: Flaws in analyses recently proposed.
Cronbach, L. J. (1987) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.414 · Cited by 996
Estimating the nonlinear and interactive effects of latent variables.
Kenny, D. A., & Judd, C. M. (1984) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.96.1.201 · Cited by 967
Self-citationData Analysis: A Model-Comparison Approach
Vining, G., Judd, C. M., & McClelland, G. H. (1992) · Technometrics · doi:10.2307/1269570 · Cited by 933
Self-citation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–123 of 123
Tobin, R., & Dunkley, D. M. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2020.103780 · Cited by 48
Herrenkohl, T. I., Klika, J. B., Brown, E. C., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Leeb, R. T. (2013) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.04.009 · Cited by 45
Gilbert, B. D., & Christopher, M. S. (2010) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-009-9282-6 · Cited by 45
Depressive symptoms and conversational self-focus in adolescents’ friendships
Schwartz-Mette, R. A., & Rose, A. J. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-015-9980-3 · Cited by 44
Kuba, K., & Scheibe, S. (2017) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0040149 · Cited by 43
Naragon-Gainey, K., & Simms, L. J. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2017.05.003 · Cited by 42
Oliver, E. J., Markland, D., & Hardy, J. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709909x477215 · Cited by 40
Van Beveren, M.-L., Mezulis, A., Wante, L., & Braet, C. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1233499 · Cited by 38
Sommet, N., Weissman, D. L., Cheutin, N., & Elliot, A. (2022) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/xhe3u · Cited by 36
Anger and inhibitory control as moderators of children's hostile attributions and aggression
Runions, K. C., & Keating, D. P. (2010) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2010.05.006 · Cited by 35
Parenting style, depressive symptoms, and substance use in Mexican American adolescents
Ozer, E. J., Flores, E., Tschann, J. M., & Pasch, L. A. (2013) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x11418539 · Cited by 34
Nguyen, N. (2010) · Corporate Reputation Review · doi:10.1057/crr.2009.25 · Cited by 32
Roussos, G., & Dovidio, J. F. (2018) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550617748728 · Cited by 28
Chesin, M., Fertuck, E., Goodman, J., Lichenstein, S., & Stanley, B. (2015) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000365196 · Cited by 26
Kohler, M. T., Turner, I. N., & Webster, G. D. (2021) · Psychology of Popular Media · doi:10.1037/ppm0000310 · Cited by 26
Paquet, C., de Montigny, L., Labban, A., Buckeridge, D., Ma, Y., Arora, N., & Dubé, L. (2017) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-017-0540-9 · Cited by 22
Bryan, A. D., Magnan, R. E., Hooper, A. E., Ciccolo, J. T., Marcus, B., & Hutchison, K. E. (2013) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-10-139 · Cited by 21
Gebauer, J. E., Haddock, G., Broemer, P., & von Hecker, U. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033482 · Cited by 14
A Latent Structure Analysis of Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression in Adolescence
Liu, R. T., McArthur, B. A., Burke, T. A., Hamilton, J. L., Mac Giollabhui, N., Stange, J. P., Hamlat, E. J., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2019) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2018.11.004 · Cited by 11
Mindfulness and situational interest
Grund, A., Schäfer, N., Sohlau, S., Uhlich, J., & Schmid, S. (2019) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2018.1553296 · Cited by 8
Formal Models of Age Differences in Task-Complexity Effects
Kliegl, R., Krampe, R. T., & Mayr, U. (2003) · Understanding Human Development · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0357-6_13 · Cited by 7
Ratcliff, C. G., Fowler, S. N., Sinclair, K. L., Prinsloo, S., Chaoul, A., Zepeda, S. G., Spelman, A., Yang, W. T., & Cohen, L. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01581-6 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- McClelland, G. H., & Judd, C. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1993
- Volume
- 114
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 376-390
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2029079171
- Cited by
- 3,270
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 144 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 92 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 97 · 2019: 101 · 2018: 127 · 2017: 122 · 2016: 157 · 2015: 144 · 2014: 150 · 2013: 162 · 2012: 162
- FWCI
- 29.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-45049, R01MH045049)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- interaction effects, moderator effects, statistical power, residual variance, fieldwork, experimental design, measurement error, non-linear scales, joint probability distribution
- MeSH terms
- Data Interpretation, Statistical, Humans, Methods, Psychological Tests, Psychometrics, Research Design, Models, Statistical, Bias
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
