Counterfactual thinking.

“This important entrepreneurial capability (Baron 2004) is highly relevant because such counterfactual thinking can have profound effects on understanding cause-and-effect relationships, subsequent decision making, and task performance (Markman et al. 2002; Roese 1997).”

“Moreover, SQ structures clearly prescribe actions and behavior throughout the wait, but MQ structures can invite counterfactual (or what-if) thinking (Mandel and Lehman 1996; Roese 1997).”

“Ample research in psychology (Kray et al., 2010; Roese, 1997; Zeelenberg et al., 1998) demonstrates the dramatic effect one’s counterfactual mental reality can wield on one’s affective response to that reality.”

“Counterfactuals furnish benchmarks against which events are appreciated; they influence emotions both in magnitude and in kind; and they impact a range of judgments, such as blame, likelihood, suspicion, and decision-making (Roese, 1997).”

“Regret arises when a consumer engages in counterfactual thinking (Kahneman and Miller 1986, Medvec et al. 1995, Roese 1997).”

“2 These contrary-to-truth “what if” scenarios, called counterfactual thoughts, can affect the way people judge bad outcomes, personal choices, and accountability (see Roese, 1997, for a review).”

“A relation between counterfactual thinking and regret is postulated in various models (e.g. Kahneman & Miller, 1986; Roese, 1997) and there is some evidence to support it (Zeelenberg, van Djik, Van der Pligt, Manstead, Regulatory Mode Effects On Regret 7 Empelen, & Reinderman, 1998; Tsiros &…”

“Counterfactual thought rarely suggests alterations from natural or social laws (Byrne, 1997, 2007; Roese, 1997; Nasco and Marsh, 1999; McCloy and Byrne, 2000; Walsh and Byrne, 2004; Tykocinski and Steinberg, 2005; Dehghani et al., 2012).”

“…the extraordinary human capacity for mental simulation of both past and future events (Gilbert & Wilson 2007, Kahneman & Miller 1986, et al. 2008, Roese 1997, Taylor et al. 1998, Tulving 2002) and general proclivity for mind-wandering (Mason et al. 2007, Smallwood & Schooler 2006) suggests that…”

“Creating such alternatives to known facts is called counterfactual reasoning (Roese, 1997).”

“Past research has shown that counterfactual thoughts are triggered when experienced outcomes are negative, unexpected, or close to alternative outcomes (Roese, 1997).”

“According to this theory, following a negative event, such as a service failure encounter, people tend to engage in a process referred to as counterfactual thinking (Roese, 1997).”

“Counterfactual thinking literally means thinking about something that did not happen (Roese 1997), and then mentally juxtaposing a comparatively better or worse outcome.”

“Over the past two decades, a great deal of psychological research has examined the determinants, consequences, and functions of counterfactual thinking (for a review, see Roese, 1997).”

“, what the event could have been or was expected to be (Roese, 1997).”

“Mental stimulation refers to “imaginative mental construction” (Roese, 1997: 134), whereas narrative transportation is “a guided form of mental simulation” (Green and Donahue, 2009: 241).”

“People also tend to mutate antecedents that are personally controllable (see Roese, 1997).”

“Research on norm theory (Kahneman & Miller, 1986) and counterfactual reasoning (Roese, 1997) suggests that thinking about the ways in which an event might not have occurred can make that event seem more surprising.”

“Regrets involve counterfactual thoughts (e.g., “If I would have done behavior X, I would be happier”; Roese, 1997) and often the experience of negative emotions (e.g., anger, feelings of helplessness; Gilovich et al., 1998; Kahneman, 1995).”

“Our hypothetical scenario is usually understood in terms of the counterfactual thinking approach (see Roese, 1997 for a review).”

“Counterfactual thoughts represent “alternative versions of the past” where the individual compares their current circumstance to some envisioned worse (downward counterfactual), or better (upward counterfactual) outcome (Roese, 1997, pp. 133–134).”

“Silver et al. (2001) found that participants appraised themselves as weak in the situation, more so when they were the sole ingroup member encountering multiple outgroup members.”

“Upwards counterfactual thinking is hypothesized to be distressing in the short-term but adaptive in the longer term because it leads to the development of behavioral intentions that generated a sense of future control (Roese 1997).”

“( People generate counterfactuals in response to both dra matic life events and more mundane outcomes commonly encountered in day-to-day living (see, e.g., Hofstadter, 1985; Kahneman & Miller, 1986; Roese, 1997).”

“Social psychological explanations of counterfactual thinking have built upon this notion of a simulation heuristic, focussing primarily on the simulations of alternatives to autobiographical episodes and the associated affect (see Roese, 1997; Roese & Olson, 1995).”

“In particular, counterfactual and causal thinking have been closely linked by philosophers (e.g., Chisholm, 1946; Mackie, 1974) and psychologists (e.g., Mandel & Lehman, 1996; Roese, 1997).”

“Regret is one of a set of complex, second-order emotions whose quality and intensity depend not only on the exact nature of the outcome of a situation but also on a comparison of reality to its alternatives (Kahneman & Miller, 1986; Miller & Taylor, 1995; Roese, 1997; Roese & Olson, 1995).”

“Third, positive outcomes, accompanied by positive feeling, are less likely to evoke counterfactual thinking than negative outcomes, accompanied by negative feeling (Roese, 1997).”

“…of regret and rejoice is as a result of counterfactual thinking, in which a realized outcome is compared with, “what might have been” (Boles and Messick, 1995; Inman et al., 1997; Kelsey and Schepanski, 1991; Mellers, 2000; Ritov and Baron, 1995; Roese and Olson, 1995; Zeelenberg, 1999).”

“But people do not only construe themselves as they are or were, but they also construe themselves as how they might be (Higgins, 1987) or might have been (Roese, 1997).”

“As we see it, the "triggers" for the shifts from one justice concern to another are not unlike the triggers for the cognitive processes of attribution (e.g., Weiner, 1985; Wong & Weiner, 198 1) and counterfactual thinking (e.g., Roese, 1997).”

“Regret motivates people toward revised decision making and corrective action that often bring improvement in life circumstances (Nasco & March, 1999; Roese, 1997, 1999; Zeelenberg & Pieters, 1999).”

“People do counterfactual reasoning whenever they contemplate a nonfactual state of affairs, whether or not this takes a specifically conditional form (e.g., Byrne, 2007; Kahneman & Varey, 1990; Roese, 1997; Tetlock & Henik, 2005).”

“In norm theory, these counterfactual, alternative outcomes are seen as being retrieved from memory or constructed after-the-fact (see Roese, 1997, for a review).”

“Counterfactual is literally defined as “counter to the facts” (Roese, 1997), or thinking “what might have been” (Roese & Olson, 1997, p.”

“There is a large literature on counterfactual thinking, spanning many different disciplines, including history (e.g., Roberts, 2004; Ferguson, 2011; Evans, 2014; Gallagher, 2018); literature (e.g., Roth, 2004; Leiber, 2010); and the philosophy of causation (Pearl, 2000; Collins et al., 2004; Pearl…”

“the 20th century by existentialists such as Sartre (1996), who famously articulated the consequence of this view: that we are all condemned to be free. But what exactly does it mean to be ‘open’ and ‘free’, and how do these two relate to the possible? And what happens in experiences of the possible such as wonder? The…”

“Tykocinski (2001) notes that, although there is something odd about the tendency of people to take comfort in the inevitability of disappointing events, the tendency to perceive inevitable events as less tragic than mutable events is well established by research in counterfactual thinking (Kahneman & Miller, 1986; Kah…”

“Regret and counterfactual thinking are widely studied because of their impact on emotional well-being, decision making, behavior regulation, and mental health (Mandel, Hilton, & Catellani, 2005; Roese, 1997, 2005; Zeelenberg, 1999).”

“…which is typical of other forms of repetitive thinking, such as depressive rumination (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991), repetitive regret (Roese et al., 2009), counterfactual thinking (e.g., Roese, 1997), or rumination associated with homesickness (Stroebe, van Vliet, Hewstone, & Willis, 2002).”

“Although the relation between causal and counterfactual judgments has been extensively investigated (Kahneman & Miller, 1986; Roese, 1997), the Structural Model has not yet been subjected to empirical test.”

“…have adopted a functional approach toward understanding the determinants and consequences of counterfactual thinking (e.g., Markman, Gavanski, Sherman, & McMullen, 1993; Markman & McMullen, 2003, 2005; Roese, 1997; Sanna, 2000), and this conceptualization highlights a number of possible functions.”

“Monetary Compensation The data were analyzed in separate mixed-model analyses of variance, one for each kind of judgment that participants rendered.”

“431 432 Through counterfactual thinking, people can reason how past changes affect the present and use 433 such reasoning for cognitive tasks including social judgments, causal attribution, problem solving 434 and learning (Roese, 1997; Byrne, 2002).”

“…two ways: (1) by realising that the current outcome was of a lesser standard than one would have hoped for, also referred to as the contrast effect (Roese, 1994, 1997), and/or (2) by attributing causal explanations, highlighting the importance of missing actions which could have prevented the…”

“The interpretation of counterfactual statements has received a lot of attention in the literature [33, 61, 8, 1, 48].”

“This amplification effect was demonstrated in a relatively large number of experiments in which various methods were employed to increase the mutability and consequently the emotional impact of negative events (see Roese, 1997).”

“…(Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000; Roese & Hur, 1997; Roese & Olson, 1995c, 1997; Sanna et al., 1999; Sanna, Meier, & Turley-Ames, 1998), losses in sporting events (Grieve, Houston, Dupuis, & Eddy, 1999), and negative affective states (Roese, 1997; Roese & Hur, 1997; Sanna et al., 1998, 1999).”

“, & Roese, N. J. (2008). The functional theory of counterfactual thinking.”

“Counterfactuals, that is, representations of what might have happened otherwise, matter (Byrne, 2007; Roese, 1997).”