Counterfactual thinking.

“Counterfactual thinking enables humans to understand the causal relations between different types of information and find alternatives to the events that have already happened (Roese, 1997).”

“…that led to it was exceptional than when it was routine” b Intrapersonal normality Hur et al. (2009), Catellani et al. (2004), McCloy and Byrne (2000), Roese (1997) “[…] intrapersonal norms, which center on a person’s behavior and what that person typically does, […]” c behavioural…”

“Existing literature calls the process of imagining the actions that could lead to a more positive outcome ‘counterfactual thinking’ (Roese, 1997).”

“Roese (1997) asserted that counterfactual thinking includes an activation stage and a content stage.”

“Counterfactual thinking (Roese, 1997; Pearl, 2009) is essential for bridging the gap between seen IID samples and unseen OOD ones.”

“Future research should examine this mediating process more closely and also consider other forms of repetitive thoughts such as counterfactual thinking (Roese, 1997).”

“CFT is defined as the mental simulation of alternatives to past factual events [1]; it is a pervasive feature of everyday life that has a central role in evaluating actual events and helps people in regulating their future behaviors.”

“The anticipated regret under outcome invisible options is low because people who experience negative feedback from their chosen option may regret that choice through a counterfactual outcome (i.e. the thought of what might have been; Roese, 1997).”

“In order to determine if the three components of accountability have been met, Folger and Cropanzano (1998, 2001) argue that individuals engage in counterfactual thinking, which occurs when one compares an actual outcome to an alternative outcome that is comparatively better or worse (Roese, 1997).”

“Such counterfactual thinking is adaptive (Roese, 1997), helping to avoid bad outcomes in future similar situations.”

“Roese and Hur (1997) highlight that negative emotions appear to offer an initial trigger in the activation of counterfactual thinking. Once activated, Medvec, et al (1995) identified that counterfactuals can, in turn, generate further negative affect. An example they discuss in their research is the evidence that bron…”

“These findings are consistent with the well-evidenced links between negative emotion and upward counterfactual thinking (Roese 1997), as well as the analytical rumination model derived from Bartoskova et al.’s (2018) study.”

“Research (Roese, 1994, 1997) has shown that people’s counterfactual thinking mostly arises after negative outcomes.”

“Counterfactual thinking, or ‘ what if ’ thinking, is de fi ned as imagining aspects of a past situation to be di ff erent, and how that di ff erence in fl uences an outcome (Roese, 1997; Roese & Olson, 1995).”

“A similar relationship between counterfactual thinking and adaptive functioning has also been reported (Callander et al. 2007; McMullen et al. 2003; Roese 1997).”

“Thinking about how past events could have been better can therefore lead people to feel worse about how things are (Roese, 1997).”

“In experimental designs 1 3 the process of random selection allows scholars to assume that with replication the individuals not exposed to the treatment condition (i.e., control cases) would represent a true counterfactual condition (Jackson 1977; Lewis 1979; Roese 1997; Shadish et al.”

“Regret is a complex social emotion in human beings that emerges from counterfactual thinking (Roese, 1997), which is also modulated by the OFC (Camille et al., 2004; Coricelli et al., 2005).”

“However, negative outcomes are also more likely to spur counterfactual thinking (Roese, 1997; Sanna & Turley, 1996) and a more critical examination of the event (Ditto & Lopez, 1992).”

“This research used a methodology similar to other studies investigating counterfactual attributions (cf. Lipe, 1991; Roese, 1997) and employed a vignette suggesting symptoms of cognitive impairment in later life (e.”

“events to lead to performance improvement (Morris & Moore, 2000; Roese, 1997).”

“Importantly, this type of counterfactual thinking elicits negative affect (Markman et al., 1993; Roese, 1997; Roese & Olson, 1995), which subsequently evokes attributions of responsibility (i.”

“’s (2008) proposition, founded on norm theory (Kahneman and Miller 1986) and counterfactual reasoning (Roese 1997), suggests that thinking about the absence of an event may make it appear more surprising.”

“…research has investigated the role of counterfactual thinking in several cognitive processes, such as causal explanation (Kahneman &Miller, 1986; Roese, 1997), attribution (Catellani, Alberici & Milesi, 2004; Mandel, Hilton, & Catellani, 2005), and self-regulation (Epstude & Roese, 2008; Roese…”

“Although no evidence for maladaptive counterfactual thinking was found, these results bear clinical implications in that upward counterfactual thinking is associated with the generation of negative affect (e.g., Roese, 1997), regardless of how adaptive the individual thoughts may be.”

“…simulation (Pham & Taylor, 1999; S. E. Taylor, Pham, Rivkin, & Armor, 1998; S. E. Taylor & Schneider, 1989), counterfactual thinking (Mandel, 2003; Roese, 1994, 1997; Roese & Olson, 1993), defensive pessimism (Norem & Cantor, 1986a, 1986b; Norem & Chang, 2002; Spencer & Norem, 1996),…”

“…= 0.003 F(3, 79) = 18.30 p < 0.001 F(4, 78) = 14.09 p < 0.001 图 5 反驳文本影响患方信任的中介效应检验路径系数图 注：**p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 Ac ta P sy ch ol og ic a Si ni ca 呈现给被试两种条件下, 反驳文本干预都能够显著 提升被试对医生的道德判断; 但是以信任作为因变 量, 只有给被试思考时间的情况下, 反驳文本干预 才显著影响被试对医生的信任得分。根据该实验数 据, 可以推测检查结果是影响被试对医生信任的主 要因素, 而道德判断与信任相比较而言, 更容易受…”

“Counterfactuals are thoughts of “if only” directed toward past actions, events, or states (“If only I had asked a coworker to assist me, then I wouldn’t have hurt my back Kahneman & Miller, 1986; Roese, 1997).”

“In fact, counterfactual thinking is very natural to how humans reason especially in response to negative outcomes to prevent them in future [16].”

“…than the present reality in working memory, comparing alternative courses of actions and outcomes, and actively monitoring various executive functions (e.g., Kahneman and Miller, 1986; Roese, 1997; Ridderinkhof et al., 2004; Van Overwalle, 2009; Barbey and Patterson, 2011; Van Hoeck et al., 2013).”

“As a result, we employ the counterfactual method [8] to construct counterfactual queries as negative samples for causal queries.”

“Specifically, individuals who experience or anticipate regret are motivated to seek alternative actions with better outcomes (Connolly & Hardman, 2009; Roese, 1997; Zeelenberg, 1999) or take measures to minimise future regret (Loomes & Sugden, 1982).”

“Counterfactual thinking is defined as ‘‘if-then’’ statements about how a series of events could have had an altered outcome if an event had not occurred or had occurred differently (Roese, 1997; Roese & Olson, 1995).”

“The functional view of counterfactual thinking contends that counterfactuals aid in performance by aiding in identifying cause–effect/if–then relationships and by enhancing preparation or planning behavior (see Epstude & Roese, 2008; Markman et al., 1993; Roese, 1997).”

“has a positive aspect as it drives us to constantly improve and learn from our successes and mistakes (Epstude & Roese, 2008; Roese, 1997).”

“Researchers find more regret in ‘‘near miss’’ situations than in situations in which people miss the desired outcome by a large margin, presumably because it is easier to generate a counterfactual for the near miss, e.g., ‘‘If only I had . . .’’ (Roese, 1997).”

“Counterfactual thinking describes the process of imagining how circumstances may have turned out differently from what did happen (Roese, 1997).”

“Kahneman and Tversky [32], for example, found that outcomes preceded by unusual as opposed to typical actions enhance CFT; moreover, events that seem spatially or temporally “almost” to have occurred also increase CFT [33].”

“Key words • communication • counterfactuals • impression formation • motivation • performance From the mundane to the significant events in our lives, we frequently imagine how our current situations could have been different by asking ‘What if…?’”

“This process is mainly activated by negative outcomes in the form of “if only” conditional prepositions (Kahneman and Tversky, 1982; Roese, 1997; Byrne and McEleney, 2000).”

“Particularly after experiencing negative outcomes, people think counterfactually, re fl ecting on what might have been (Roese, 1997), and experience regret.”

“…and relationship quality with supervisors and/or colleagues) as well as situational factors (e.g., personality and behaviors of supervisors and/or colleagues, kinds of treatment experienced by his or her colleagues or someone serving as his or her standards of comparisons) (Roese, 1997).”

“The effect of counterfactual thinking on behavior can be explained by psychological mechanisms, such as causal relationships and contrast effects (Roese, 1997).”

“5 In logic such an act would be described in terms of reasoning about ”possible worlds,” whereas in psychology such reasonings are called: ”counterfactual reasonings” (Roese 1997).”

“Episodic counterfactual thinking is pervasive after people experience negative events (Byrne, 2016; Roese, 1997), particularly when those events elicit negative emotions like regret, disappointment, guilt, and shame (Niedenthal, Tangney, & Gavanski, 1994; Tangney, 1995; van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2005;…”

“The differential effects observed for these subtypes of near-misses may represent a distinctive effect caused by two directions of counterfactual processing, which is known to affect both emotion and motivation (Epstude & Roese, 2008; Markman & McMullen, 2003; Roese, 1994, 1997).”

“, Newman and Cain, 2014), a concept with a long history in cognitive and social psychology (e.g., Galinsky and Moskowitz, 2000; Kahneman, 2014; Kahneman and Miller, 1986; Miller and McFarland, 1986; Roese, 1997; Roese and Olson, 2014).”

“Counterfactual thinking, “if only” thoughts in which individuals simulate an alternative reality (Roese, 1997), are a frequent response to these mistakes in daily life (Summerville & Roese, 2008), in part because they help individuals improve their future performance (Markman, Gavanski, Sherman, & McMullen, 1993) by f…”

“Counterfactuals are evaluative thoughts about imagined alternatives to past events (Epstude & Roese, 2008), epitomised by the phrase “what might have been” (Roese, 1997).”

“This finding is consistent with extant research on counterfactual thinking and the general tendency to upwardly compare to unattained, alternative outcomes (see, for example, Roese, 1997).”

“The first focuses on the natural, functional role of counterfactual thinking (Roese, 1997; Roese & Epstude, 2017; Roese & Olson, 1993; Wiener et al., 1994). In explaining this approach, Wiener and Pritchard (1994) postulated that a juror’s counterfactual thinking should affect all four prima facie elements of a neglig…”

“For example, people imagine how things could have been better for an event with a good outcome, such as passing an exam, and worse for an event with a bad outcome, such as failing an exam (Markman, Gavanski, Sherman, & McMullen, 1993; see also Roese, 1997; De Brigard, Addis, et al., 2013).”