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The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

Crocker, Jennifer, Park, Lora E.·2004·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.

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Background
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Cheung, E. O., & Gardner, W. L. (2016) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2016.1194314 · Cited by 12
“Although this strategy may be an effective strategy in terms of promoting positive affect and positive self-views in the short term (e.g., Crocker & Park, 2004), it is less clear that this strategy promotes ideal self movement in the long term.”
Comparaisons sociales et comparaisons temporelles : vers une approche séquentielle et fonction de la situation unique
de la Sablonnière, R., Hénault, A.-M., & Huberdeau, M.-É. (2009) · Les cahiers internationaux de psychologie sociale · doi:10.3917/cips.083.0003 · Cited by 12
Motivated Expression of Self-esteem across Cultures
Yamaguchi, S., Lin, C., Morio, H., & Okumura, T. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-373694-9.00016-7 · Cited by 12
Self-Esteem
Jordan, C. H., Zeigler‐Hill, V., & Cameron, J. J. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.25090-3 · Cited by 17
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“Other work suggests that self-esteem is often directly tied to perceptions of ourselves as a good person (Crocker & Park, 2004; Rosenberg, 1965; Sheldon et al., 2001).”
Background
Active and passive selfie-related behaviors: Implications for body image, self-esteem and mental health
Bodroža, B., Obradović, V., & Ivanović, S. (2022) · Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2022-2-3 · Cited by 9
“Finally, basing selfesteem on online affirmation can lead to the feeling of contingency on this source of positive feedback, which when absent can cause even deeper feelings of inadequacy or ill-being (Crocker, 2002; Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Reach for the STARS? The role of academic contingent self-worth in statistics anxiety and learning
Fairlamb, S., Papadopoulou, H., & Bourne, V. J. (2022) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101815 · Cited by 8
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Az Önmagunk Iránt Érzett Együttérzés (Önegyüttérzés) skála magyar változatának pszichometriai jellemzői
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“While a successful pursuit of self-esteem results in positive emotions as well as a sense of control and safety, failed attempts to bolster one's selfesteem typically result in individuals feeling even more worthless, anxious, and vulnerable to threat (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
An Investigation of the Associations Between Contingent Self-Worth and Aspirations Among Iranian University Students
SabzehAra, M., Ferguson, Y. L., Sarafraz, M. R., & Mohammadi, M. (2013) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2013.843501 · Cited by 14
“Another point of difference is that having a highly contingent self-worth may result in behaviors that are inauthentic to the self—i.e., behaviors that are enacted by introjected motivation (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Self-esteem and Self-perpetuating Effects of Threat on Contingencies of Self-worth
Buckingham, J. T., Weber, A. M., & Sypher, A. (2011) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2011.591537 · Cited by 11
“( 2004 ) suggested that self-worth contingencies can have “state-like qualities.”
Background
The role of approach and avoidance motivation in employee voice
Ma, C. (2016) · International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management · doi:10.1108/ijppm-01-2016-0002 · Cited by 14
Genetic and environmental influences on the association between performance-based self-esteem and exhaustion: A study of the self-worth notion of burnout.
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“Pursuits of self-esteem may lead to depressive states but more often to other and less severe costs of well-being such as pressure, frustration, anxiety and anger (Crocker & Park, 2004), which then would differentiate burnout from depression.”
Background
Body Image Dissatisfaction and Self-Esteem: A Consumer-Centric Exploration and a Proposed Research Agenda
Krishen, A. S., & Worthen, D. (2011) · The Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction & Complaining Behavior · Cited by 11
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When Self-Worth Is Tied to One’s Sexual and Romantic Relationship: Associations with Well-Being in Couples Coping with Genito-Pelvic Pain
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Romantic relationship and appearance-based rejection sensitivity: A moderated mediation model of self-rated attractiveness and appearance-contingent self-worth
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Cowden, R. G., & Worthington, E. L. (2018) · Journal of Human Sport and Exercise · doi:10.14198/jhse.2019.142.01 · Cited by 11
“…failure with less bias and defensiveness, athletes increase the likelihood of adaptively using the information associated with the failure (e.g., concentration lapses) to determine and embrace areas in which they can technically, strategically, or psychologically improve (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Is self-compassion contagious? An examination of whether hearing a display of self-compassion impacts self-compassion in the listener.
Miller, K. E., & Kelly, A. C. (2019) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/cbs0000150 · Cited by 13
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“…domain, this should be related to lower well-being, because people strive to continually achieve higher and higher levels of success in domains of contingency (Crocker & Park, 2004), and based on past research showing that Financial CSW predicts negative psychological outcomes (Park et al., 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
How selves play on passive social network usage and positive emotions
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“It has been recognized that insecurity in children is associated with maladaptive behaviours and relationships, including rejection and social isolation (Colonnesi et al., 2011; Crocker & Park, 2004; Ladd & Burgess, 1999).”
Background
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Cayetano, A. R., Merchán, F. H., Mena-Ramos, J. M. D., Muñoz, A. S., & Muñoz, S. P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1018139 · Cited by 11
“This may be explained by the adolescents’ desire to achieve victory in competition, compared to children who may still see sport as a game (Crocker and Park, 2004).”
Background
Constructing body image in university women: The relationship between self-esteem, self-compassion, and intuitive eating.
Stapleton, P., & Nikalje, A. (2013) · Bond University Research Portal (Bond University) · Cited by 11
Self processes in obsessive–compulsive disorder
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Authors: Crocker, J., & Park, L. E.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
ORCID: Crocker, Jennifer
Park, Lora E.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2004-05
Volume: 130
Issue: 3
Pages: 392-414
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392
OpenAlex: W2139936398
Semantic Scholar: 924706e15f8baf8a3f9cec05a301a422a2f47c1f
Cited by: 1,402
References: 305
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 73 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 62
FWCI: 5.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (1k02mh001747-01a1)
National Institute of Mental Health (K02 MH01747-01, R01 MH5886901)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, self-worth, learning, relatedness, autonomy, self-regulation, mental health, physical health
MeSH terms: Culture, Emotions, Goals, Humans, Internal-External Control, Interpersonal Relations, Motivation, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Social Perception, Time

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The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

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