The DOI matches its Crossref record; 314 of the 314 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem
Abstract
Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Researchers have found that self-esteem—defined as a person's sense of self-worth—is closely associated with well-being and a number of other adaptive outcomes.”
From Self-esteem and subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal, relational, and collective self-esteem (2017) · cites this paper as [4]
Citations
Cites
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68 · Cited by 54,599
The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01 · Cited by 34,210
James, W. (1891) · Personality Culture Society · doi:10.1037/11059-000 · Cited by 25,876
The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497 · Cited by 23,245
Advances In Experimental Social Psychology
(2022) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(22)x0002-6 · Cited by 22,559
Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.98.2.224 · Cited by 21,995
(1969) · Cited by 18,340
(1997) · Naming the Mind: How Psychology Found its Language · doi:10.4135/9781446221815.n7 · Cited by 15,148
The Handbook of Social Psychology
Gravatt, A. E., Lindzey, G. E., & Aronson, F. (1969) · The Family Coordinator · doi:10.2307/582242 · Cited by 12,518
The case for motivated reasoning.
Kunda, Z. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480 · Cited by 9,022
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 26
- Allport, 1955, Becoming.
- 10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226 · DOI · Paper page
- Baumeister, 1998, The self., Vol. 2, 680
- 10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 · DOI · Paper page
- Baumeister, 2001, Narcissism as addiction to esteem., Psychological Inquiry, 12, 206
- Benson, 1998, What kids need to succeed: Proven, practical ways to raise good kids.
- Bowlby, 1969, Attachment., Vol. 1
- 10.1037/0021-843X.92.3.330 · DOI
- Crocker, 2003, Seeking self-esteem: Maintenance, enhancement, and protection of self-worth., 291
- Cross, 2001, Patterns of African-American identity development: A life-span perspective., 243
- deCharms, 1968, Personal causation.
- 10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.139 · DOI · Paper page
- Fredrickson, 2001, Positive emotions., 123
- Glennon, 1999, 200 ways to raise a girl's self-esteem.
- 10.1037/0278-6133.10.5.330 · DOI
- 10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1268 · DOI
- Kiecolt-Glaser, 1991, Spousal caregivers of dementia victims: Longitudinal changes in immunity and health., Psychosomatic Medicine, 53, 345, 10.1097/00006842-199107000-00001 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.310 · DOI
- 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 · DOI · Paper page
- Schrof, 1992, Pumped up., U.S. News & World Report, 55
- Seligman, 1998, The American way of blame., Monitor on Psychology, 29, 4
- Smith, 2001, Hollow kids: Recapturing the soul of a generation lost to the self-esteem myth.
- Stroebe, 2000, Health psychology
- 10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.797 · DOI
- 10.1037/0022-3514.52.1.72 · DOI
- 10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.1007 · DOI · Paper page
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 1,000
Venture failure, stigma, and impression management: A self‐verification, self‐determination view
Shepherd, D. A., & Haynie, J. M. (2011) · Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal · doi:10.1002/sej.113 · Cited by 210
Hill, S. E., & Buss, D. M. (2013) · Cited by 194
Perceptions of Negative Workplace Gossip: A Self-Consistency Theory Framework
Wu, L., Birtch, T. A., Chiang, F. F. T., & Zhang, H. (2016) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206316632057 · Cited by 192
“…1992), high self-esteem individuals generally behave in ways that maintain their positive self-views (self-enhancement strategies), whereas low self-esteem individuals generally behave in ways that maintain their negative self-views (avoidance or self-protective strategies; Crocker & Park, 2004).”
BackgroundRelationship-contingent self-esteem and the ups and downs of romantic relationships
Knee, C. R., Canevello, A., Bush, A. L., & Cook, A. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.3.608 · Cited by 190
Marr, J. C., & Thau, S. (2013) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2011.0909 · Cited by 200
“Finally, research on contingencies of self-worth (Crocker & Park, 2004) has suggested that failure in domains in which the self is implicated triggers self-threat, which promotes cognitive processes that are meant to protect against the threat, such as mentally resisting and challenging it…”
BackgroundMethodPark, L. E. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206296301 · Cited by 202
Self-citationSelf-Compassion and Psychological Well-Being in Older Adults
Homan, K. J. (2016) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-016-9227-8 · Cited by 208
“Self-esteem has been linked with greater denial and defensiveness (Crocker and Park 2004; Leary et al. 2007) while self-compassion is associated with honestly confronting one’s role in failures, more balanced emotional reactions, and a willingness to learn from mistakes (Breines and Chen 2012;…”
BackgroundDoes self-stigma reduce the probability of seeking mental health information?
Lannin, D. G., Vogel, D. L., Brenner, R. E., Abraham, W. T., & Heath, P. J. (2015) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000108 · Cited by 235
Trzesniewski, K. H., Donnellan, M. B., & Robins, R. W. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02065.x · Cited by 183
Trait entitlement: A cognitive-personality source of vulnerability to psychological distress.
Grubbs, J. B., & Exline, J. J. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000063 · Cited by 180
When winning is everything: On passion, identity, and aggression in sport
Donahue, E. G., Rip, B., & Vallerand, R. J. (2009) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.02.002 · Cited by 182
Kruglanski, A. W., Molinario, E., Jaśko, K., Webber, D. J., Leander, N. P., & Pierro, A. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916211034825 · Cited by 207
“—G. W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Spirit The quest for social worth is a universal motivation, an essential force animating human social behavior (e.g., Allport, 1955; Crocker & Park, 2004; Leary & Baumeister, 2000; Rosenberg, 1965; Solomon et al., 1991).”
InfluentialMandel, N., & Smeesters, D. (2008) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/587626 · Cited by 175
Mortality salience increases adherence to salient norms and values
Gailliot, M. T., Stillman, T. F., Schmeichel, B. J., Maner, J. K., & Plant, E. A. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208316791 · Cited by 174
“Violating norms (e.g., gender norms) is seen negatively by others (Rudman, 1998; Rudman & Fairchild, 2004), and people follow norms because they believe that social acceptance partly depends on it (Carver, Yunger, & Perry, 2003; Crocker & Park, 2004; Egan & Perry, 2001; Sanchez & Crocker, 2005).”
BackgroundGrolnick, W. S., Price, C. E., Beiswenger, K. L., & Sauck, C. C. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.991 · Cited by 171
Yu, L., Duffy, M. K., & Tepper, B. J. (2017) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2015.0183 · Cited by 179
Zhao, X., Lan, M., Li, H., & Yang, J. (2020) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2020.05.021 · Cited by 182
“Further, participants with high self-esteem displaymore self-protection and attribute failure more to external factors than participants with low self-esteem [74,77].”
High self-esteem buffers negative feedback: Once more with feeling
Brown, J. D. (2010) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930903504405 · Cited by 186
“In between these two extremes lie a variety of intermediary positions that seek to specify when high self-esteem and its pursuit are beneficial or burdensome (e.g., Crocker & Park, 2004; Swann, Chang-Schneider, & McClarty, 2007).”
BackgroundSexual Orientation Identity and Romantic Relationship Quality in Same-Sex Couples
Mohr, J. J., & Fassinger, R. E. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206288281 · Cited by 167
Attachment Styles and Contingencies of Self-Worth
Park, L. E., Crocker, J., & Mickelson, K. D. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204264000 · Cited by 177
Self-citationFinding the Meaning of Meaning: Emerging Insights on Four Grand Questions
Baumeister, R. F., & Landau, M. J. (2018) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000145 · Cited by 173
Generation Validation: The Role of Social Comparison in Use of Instagram Among Emerging Adults
Stapleton, P., Luiz, G., & Chatwin, H. (2017) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2016.0444 · Cited by 213
“These findings are consistent with previous studies in the area of SNSs and self-worth.(31) Although the interaction term effect was seemingly small, research has highlighted that even when reliable moderator effects are observed, the decrease in model error as a result of adding the interaction term is disconcertingl…”
Self-Affirmations Provide a Broader Perspective on Self-Threat
Critcher, C. R., & Dunning, D. A. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214554956 · Cited by 180
“The influence of threat on global feelings of self-worth has not been discussed in terms of a constricted self-concept that follows threat, but has been in terms of overgeneralization of the threat itself (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
From Vulnerability to Resilience
Niiya, Y., Crocker, J., & Bartmess, E. N. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00759.x · Cited by 159
Self-citationToward a Psychological Science for a Cultural Species
Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00015.x · Cited by 168
Does self-threat promote social connection? The role of self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth.
Park, L. E., & Maner, J. K. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013933 · Cited by 178
Self-citationHuang, J. Y., & Bargh, J. A. (2014) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x13000290 · Cited by 173
“Indeed, the pervasive and seemingly paramount needs to protect one’s self-esteem (Crocker & Park 2004) and to negotiate self-protection and connectedness goals in one’s interpersonal relationships (e.g., Murray et al. 2008) ironically lead people to avoid potential sources of social support.”
BackgroundThe multifinality constraints effect: How goal multiplicity narrows the means set to a focal end.
Köpetz, C., Faber, T. W., Fishbach, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022980 · Cited by 166
Kim, S., & Gal, D. (2014) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/676681 · Cited by 161
A daily diary study of self-compassion, body image, and eating behavior in female college students
Kelly, A. C., & Stephen, E. (2016) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.03.006 · Cited by 150
“Gilbert (2005) proposed that self-compassion riginates from humans’ capacity for caregiving, and involves the ourage to face and be moved by one’s own suffering, and an ctive desire to alleviate it.”
BackgroundDispositional and state forgiveness: The role of self-esteem, need for structure, and narcissism
Eaton, J., Ward Struthers, C., & Santelli, A. G. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.02.005 · Cited by 150
The dynamics of consumer behavior: A goal systemic perspective
Köpetz, C., Kruglanski, A. W., Arens, Z. G., Etkin, J., & Johnson, H. M. (2011) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2011.03.001 · Cited by 161
Unraveling respect in organization studies
Grover, S. L. (2013) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726713484944 · Cited by 151
“People engage with sources of respect (Crocker and Park, 2004).”
The pursuit of happiness can be lonely.
Mauss, I. B., Savino, N. S., Anderson, C. L., Max Weisbuch, A., Tamir, M., & Laudenslager, M. L. (2011) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0025299 · Cited by 135
Dangerous mindsets: How beliefs about intelligence predict motivational change
Haimovitz, K., Wormington, S. V., & Corpus, J. H. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.09.002 · Cited by 157
“This focus on verifying intellectual ability through school work has been termed an ability-validation goal (Grant & Dweck, 2003), and is highly correlated with a sense of self-worth contingent on success in the achievement domain (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
BackgroundSELF-ESTEEM AND JOB PERFORMANCE: THE MODERATING ROLE OF SELF-ESTEEM CONTINGENCIES
Ferris, D. L., Lian, H., Brown, D. J., PANG, F. X. J., & Keeping, L. M. (2010) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01181.x · Cited by 134
The Relationship of Coping, Self-Worth, and Subjective Well-Being: A Structural Equation Model
Smedema, S. M., Catalano, D., & Ebener, D. J. (2010) · Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0034355209358272 · Cited by 145
“It may be that people pursue self-esteem because “their attempts to satisfy their contingencies of self-worth help them manage their fears and anxieties” (Crocker & Park, 2004, p. 394).”
BackgroundResilience in Later Adulthood and Old Age: Resources and Potentials for Successful Aging
Greve, W., & Staudinger, U. M. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470939406.ch21 · Cited by 135
Marchlewska, M., Cichocka, A. K., Jaworska, M., de Zavala, A. G., & Bilewicz, M. (2020) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12367 · Cited by 138
“…is inspired by research on self-evaluation where individual narcissism—an inflated view of oneself that requires continual external validation (e.g., Crocker & Park, 2004; Emmons, 1987; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001) is differentiated from secure self-esteem—a realistic pride people take in their…”
The Unique Contribution of Positive Orientation to Optimal Functioning
Alessandri, G., Caprara, G. V., & Tisak, J. (2011) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000070 · Cited by 143
Hulleman, C. S., Barron, K. E., Kosovich, J. J., & Lazowski, R. A. (2016) · Plenum series on human exceptionality · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28606-8_10 · Cited by 142
Herrmann, J., Koeppen, K., & Kessels, U. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.11.011 · Cited by 132
Situational disengagement and persistence in the face of adversity
Nussbaum, A. D., & Steele, C. M. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.007 · Cited by 128
Kelly, A. C., Vimalakanthan, K., & Miller, K. E. (2014) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.07.005 · Cited by 128
Heine, S. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.531 · Cited by 128
The motivational effects of diminished self-esteem for employees who experience abusive supervision
Vogel, R. M., & Mitchell, M. S. (2017) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206314566462 · Cited by 151
“Instead, their focus is on defending and boosting their self-worth by discrediting the threat to their self-esteem and standing up for themselves (Baumeister; Crocker & Park, 2004).”
BackgroundSelf and Identity across the Life Span
McAdams, D. P., & Cox, K. S. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470880166.hlsd002006 · Cited by 128
Glory Out of Reflected Failure: The examination of how rivalry affects sport fans
Havard, C. T. (2013) · Sport Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.smr.2013.09.002 · Cited by 126
“We” are not stressed: Social identity in groups buffers neuroendocrine stress reactions
Häusser, J. A., Kattenstroth, M., van Dick, R., & Mojzisch, A. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.020 · Cited by 125
Passive social network site use and subjective well-being: A moderated mediation model
Wu, C., Fan, C., Liu, Q., Zhou, Z., & Xie, X. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.04.038 · Cited by 148
Kitching, K., Morgan, M., & O'Leary, M. R. (2009) · Teachers and Teaching · doi:10.1080/13540600802661311 · Cited by 141
“Recent developments in thinking about selfesteem emphasise the domain in which people have invested their self-worth to be of importance (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSuh, E. M. (2007) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00477.x · Cited by 124
Lee, J.-E. R., Moore, D. C., Park, E.-A., & Park, S. G. (2012) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.01.006 · Cited by 133
“The pursuit of self-esteem based on ‘‘the desire to believe that one is worthy’’ (Crocker & Park, 2004, p. 392) exerts critical influence on how people present themselves to others (Baumeister, 1982).”
Self-Determination Theory and Romantic Relationship Processes
Knee, C. R., Hadden, B. W., Porter, B., & Rodriguez, L. M. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868313498000 · Cited by 144
“…of self-esteem for its own sake is thought to be harmful for the creation and maintenance of close relationships, mainly because focusing on outcomes for oneself interferes with the ability to focus on the needs of others (for reviews, see Crocker & Park, 2004, and Park, Crocker, & Vohs, 2006).”
BackgroundWagner, J., Lüdtke, O., Jonkmann, K., & Trautwein, U. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029680 · Cited by 119
Kolubinski, D. C., Frings, D., Nikčević, A. V., Lawrence, J. A., & Spada, M. M. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.06.025 · Cited by 118
“, 1993, 1989; Kernis and Goldman, 2006), externally or internally contingent (Crocker and Luhtanen, 2003; Crocker and Park, 2004; Vonk and Smit, 2011), implicit (how you feel about yourself) or explicit (what you think about yourself)”
BackgroundPark, L. E., Calogero, R. M., Young, A. F., & DiRaddo, A. M. (2010) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2010.29.5.489 · Cited by 125
Self-citationLee, W. K. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.01.001 · Cited by 124
“The main reason for using self-compassion as a moderator in this study is that recent reviews of the research literature suggest that self-esteem may not be the panacea it is made out to be (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003; Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Juth, V., Smyth, J. M., & Santuzzi, A. M. (2008) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105308095062 · Cited by 118
“Crocker and Park (2004) suggest the importance of shifting attention from the effects of levels (high or low) of self-esteem to the pursuit of self-esteem.”
BackgroundWork-related factors of presenteeism: The mediating role of mental and physical health.
Pohling, R., Buruck, G., Jungbauer, K.-L., & Leiter, M. P. (2015) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039670 · Cited by 130
Experimental Existential Psychology: Coping With the Facts of Life
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., Koole, S., & Solomon, S. (2010) · Handbook of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001020 · Cited by 116
Self‐determination theory as a foundation for personality researchers
Sheldon, K. M., & Prentice, M. S. (2017) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12360 · Cited by 137
“That’s Not Just Beautiful—That’s Incredibly Beautiful!”
Brummelman, E., Thomaes, S., de Castro, B. O., Overbeek, G., & Bushman, B. (2014) · Psychology Science · doi:10.1177/0956797613514251 · Cited by 91
“Building on the self-presentation literature (Baumeister et al., 1989; Crocker & Park, 2004), our findings suggest that inflated praise triggers self-protection motives in children with low self-esteem (e.g., “I want to avoid revealing my defi-ciencies”) and self-promotion motives in children with…”
Age differences in instability, contingency, and level of self-esteem across the life span
Meier, L. L., Orth, U., Denissen, J. J. A., & Kühnel, A. (2011) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.08.008 · Cited by 126
“Self-esteem contingency has been defined as the degree to which self-esteem fluctuates in response to self-relevant events (e.g., Crocker & Park, 2004; Crocker & Wolfe, 2001).”
Do people’s world views matter? The why and how.
Chen, S. X., Lam, B. C. P., Wu, W. C. H., Ng, J. C. K., Buchtel, E. E., Guan, Y., & Deng, H. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000061 · Cited by 117
When does self-esteem relate to deviant behavior? The role of contingencies of self-worth.
Ferris, D., Brown, D. J., Lian, H.-W., & Keeping, L. M. (2009) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016115 · Cited by 123
“Given that individuals are motivated to self-enhance and to avoid esteem threats ( Crocker & Park, 2004 ), such potential increases or decreases in self-esteem levels can serve as powerful prescriptions and proscriptions for what behaviors are appropriate in a given domain (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001).”
Performance-based self-esteem : A driving force in burnout processes and its assessment
Hallsten, L., Josephson, M., & Torgén, M. (2005) · Gothenburg University Publications Electronic Archive (Gothenburg University) · Cited by 110
Pachankis, J. E., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2013) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2013.764304 · Cited by 109
“Previous research suggests that competition restricts sources of support (Crocker & Park, 2004), and feelings of superiority are associated with poor mental health for sexual minority individuals (Balsam & Mohr, 2007).”
BackgroundThe Network Architecture of Human Captial: A Relational Identity Perspective
Methot, J. R., Rosado-Solomon, E., & Allen, D. G. (2018) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2016.0338 · Cited by 116
“…(Steele, 1988), which narrows individuals’ attention and compromises their ability to learn, show initiative, and take risks (Jackson & Dutton, 1988); breeds rigidity in their self-concepts and role-relationships (Crocker & Park, 2004); and impairs the quality of their work (Roberts, 2007).”
BackgroundContingencies of Self-Worth and Appearance Concerns
Overstreet, N. M., & Quinn, D. M. (2012) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0361684311435221 · Cited by 107
“CSW that do not rely heavily on others’ approval are positively associated with overall trait self-esteem and less maladaptive behaviors (Crocker & Park, 2004; Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Kim & Williams, 2009).”
BackgroundVansteenkiste, M., Matos, L., Lens, W., & Soenens, B. (2006) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.04.006 · Cited by 119
“Such an analysis fits with various social psychologists’ viewpoint (e.g., Crocker & Park, 2004; Kernis, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2004) that the explicit pursuit of self-esteem is likely to yield some costs and might lead people to end up with having low selfesteem (Ryan & Brown, 2003).”
BackgroundSelf-image Goals and Compassionate Goals: Costs and Benefits
Crocker, J., Olivier, M.-A., & Nuer, N. (2009) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860802505160 · Cited by 113
“Self-image goals may undermine these beneficial consequences of compassionate goals for relationships (e.g., Collins & Feeney, 2000; Crocker & Park, 2004; Feeney & Collins, 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWhat makes narcissists bloom? A framework for research on the etiology and development of narcissism
Thomaes, S. C. E., Bushman, B. J., de Castro, B. O., & Stegge, H. (2009) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579409990137 · Cited by 115
“To be sure, the tendency to pursue and be concerned about self-esteem is universal (Crocker & Park, 2004; Leary & Baumeister, 2000; Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Solomon, Arndt, & Schimel, 2004).”
BackgroundContingencies of Self-Worth, Academic Failure, and Goal Pursuit
Park, L. E., Crocker, J., & Kiefer, A. K. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207305538 · Cited by 106
Self-citationPark, L. E., Streamer, L., Huang, L. Y., & Galinsky, A. D. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.06.001 · Cited by 105
“…distinctiveness and self-esteem are less important than maintaining social relationships, preserving ingroup harmony, fulfilling duties and responsibilities, and striving for self-improvement (Crocker & Park, 2004; Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAdams, K. E., Tyler, J. M., Calogero, R. M., & Lee, J. (2017) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.004 · Cited by 105
Meaningful Work and Workplace Democracy
Yeoman, R. (2014) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137370587 · Cited by 105
DuBois, D. L., & Flay, B. R. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.415 · Cited by 104
Játiva, R., & Cerezo, M. Á. (2014) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.04.005 · Cited by 138
Ashton-James, C. E., & Tracy, J. L. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211429449 · Cited by 111
“…hubristic-pride-relevant traits of latent self-doubt and insecure self-esteem are known to promote excessive selffocus and self-centered rumination (Crocker & Park, 2004), which can undermine one’s responsiveness to the needs of others (Cialdini et al., 1997; Davis, 1983; Joireman, Parrott, &…”
I Am Aware of My Inconsistencies but Can Tolerate Them
Itzchakov, G., Kluger, A. N., & Castro, D. R. (2016) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167216675339 · Cited by 103
Thoman, D. B., Arizaga, J. A., Smith, J. L., Story, T. S., & Soncuya, G. (2014) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0361684313499899 · Cited by 102
“…suggests that individuals respond to threats to self (including gender stereotypes) differently based on the self-esteem dimension being threatened (Crocker & Park, 2004), but no known previous work has been applied to the kind of person situation case that would generate this kind of prediction.”
BackgroundSweets, Sex, or Self-Esteem? Comparing the Value of Self-Esteem Boosts With Other Pleasant Rewards
Bushman, B. J., Moeller, S. J., & Crocker, J. (2010) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00712.x · Cited by 114
“However, these results need to be interpreted with caution, given they are post hoc (not hypothesized a priori) and did not emerge in Study 1. struct and inflate desired self-images (Crocker & Canevello, 2008; Crocker & Park, 2004).”
ResultSelf-citationToor, S., & Ofori, G. (2009) · Construction Management and Economics · doi:10.1080/01446190902729721 · Cited by 115
“These assertions are in line with Crocker and Park's ( 2004 ) argument that people with high contingent self‐esteem are constantly driven to achieve success and avoid failure in order to seek the validation of their self‐worth.”
BackgroundResultAhn, J., Dik, B. J., & Hornback, R. (2017) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2017.07.003 · Cited by 125
Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001008 · Cited by 105
Collective Narcissism and Intergroup Hostility: The Dark Side of ‘In‐Group Love’
de Zavala, A. G. (2011) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00351.x · Cited by 106
“Inflated beliefs in one’s own superiority and entitlement contingent on continuous external validation are characteristic of narcissism (e.g. Crocker & Park, 2004; Emmons, 1987; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001; Raskin & Terry, 1988).”
What makes teachers tick? Sustaining events in new teachers’ lives
Morgan, M., Ludlow, L. H., Kitching, K., O'Leary, M. R., & Clarke, A. M. (2009) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1080/01411920902780972 · Cited by 110
“Recent and parallel developments in the psychology of self‐esteem complement this view (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001 ; Crocker & Park, 2004 ) and add an important motivational proposition, viz.”
BackgroundTo Be or Want to Be: Disentangling the Role of Actual versus Ideal Self in Implicit Self-Esteem
Remue, J., Hughes, S., Houwer, J. D., & Raedt, R. D. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0108837 · Cited by 108
“Self-esteem has been extensively investigated by researchers from a wide variety of theoretical persuasions and currently represents a key explanatory construct in many areas of psychological science, including health psychology [1], social psychology [2,3] and clinical psychology [4].”
BackgroundNesje, K. (2014) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.12456 · Cited by 96
Personality and Ethical Decision-Making in Research: The Role of Perceptions of Self and others
Antes, A. L., Brown, R. P., Murphy, S. T., Waples, E. P., Mumford, M. D., Connelly, S., & Devenport, L. D. (2007) · Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics · doi:10.1525/jer.2007.2.4.15 · Cited by 96
Self-Compassion Amongst Clients with Problematic Alcohol Use
Brooks, M., KAY‐LAMBKIN, F. J., Bowman, J., & Childs, S. J. (2012) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0106-5 · Cited by 96
Being extraordinary: How CEOS' uncommon names explain strategic distinctiveness
Kang, Y., Zhu, D. H., & Zhang, Y. A. (2020) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.3231 · Cited by 97
Reactive approach motivation (RAM) for religion.
McGregor, I., Nash, K. A., & Prentice, M. S. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019702 · Cited by 100
Beyond me: Mindful responses to social threat.
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., Creswell, J. D., & Niemiec, C. P. (2008) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11771-007 · Cited by 100
Collective narcissism as a framework for understanding populism
de Zavala, A. G., & Keenan, O. (2020) · Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/jts5.69 · Cited by 97
Narcissism and well‐being: A longitudinal perspective
Zuckerman, M., & O'Loughlin, R. E. (2009) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.594 · Cited by 92
Harmony within the walls: Perceptions of worthiness and competence in a community prison choir
Cohen, M. L. (2012) · International Journal of Music Education · doi:10.1177/0255761411431394 · Cited by 101
Paths to Intimate Relationship Quality From Parent–Adolescent Relations and Mental Health
Johnson, M. D., & Galambos, N. L. (2014) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12074 · Cited by 103
An Exchange Theory of Money and Self-Esteem in Decision Making
Zhang, L. (2009) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014225 · Cited by 93
“James’s ideas on the self spurred important research in social psychology (Baumeister, 1998; Crocker & Park, 2004; Greenwald, 1980; Steele, 1988; Taylor & Brown, 1988), which is extended to research on consumer behavior (Belk, 1988).”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Crocker, J., & Park, L. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2004-05
- Volume
- 130
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 392-414
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2139936398
- Semantic Scholar
- 924706e15f8baf8a3f9cec05a301a422a2f47c1f
- Cited by
- 1,402
- References
- 305
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 73 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 62
- FWCI
- 5.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (1k02mh001747-01a1)
- National Institute of Mental Health (K02 MH01747-01, R01 MH5886901)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-worth, learning, relatedness, autonomy, self-regulation, mental health, physical health
- MeSH terms
- Culture, Emotions, Goals, Humans, Internal-External Control, Interpersonal Relations, Motivation, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Social Perception, Time
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
