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The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

Crocker, Jennifer, Park, Lora E.·2004·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.

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“…people care about their self-esteem and are highly motivated to pursue higher self-esteem is less controversial and better supported empirically than ideas about what self-esteem does (see for example, Bushman, Moeller, & Crocker, 2011; Crocker & Park, 2004; Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001).”
Background
The moderating effect of general system justification on the relationship between unethical behavior and self-esteem
Liang, Y., Liu, L., Tan, X., Dang, J., Li, C., & Gu, Z. (2018) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2018.1541328 · Cited by 8
“Self-esteem refers to the overall self-evaluation of one’s worth, and it shapes how individuals think about themselves and drives how they act (Crocker & Park, 2004; Greenberg et al., 1992; Leary & Baumeister, 2000).”
Background
Self-compassion and verbal performance: Evidence for threat-buffering and implicit self-related thoughts
DeLury, S. S., & Poulin, M. J. (2018) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2018.1477829 · Cited by 10
“Threats such as failure and negative feedback can also diminish intrinsic motivation, undermine learning, and impede self-regulation (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
How managers’ risk perceptions affect their willingness to blame advisors as scapegoats
Aschauer, F., Sohn, M., & Hirsch, B. (2021) · European Management Journal · doi:10.1016/j.emj.2021.09.004 · Cited by 13
Leadership Coaching? No thanks, I’m not worthy
Ellam-Dyson, V., & Palmer, S. (2011) · The Coaching Psychologist · doi:10.1002/9781119835714.ch14 · Cited by 8
Self-Esteem, Stress, and Emotion
Roger, D. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012373947-6.00340-8 · Cited by 8
Self‐Respect and Self‐Esteem
Dillon, R. S. (2019) · The International Encyclopedia of Ethics · doi:10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee221.pub2 · Cited by 8
The risk of male success and failure: How performance outcomes along with a high-status identity affect gender identification, risk behavior, and self-esteem
Reinhard, M.-A., Schindler, S., & Stahlberg, D. (2014) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430213507319 · Cited by 10
Adaptive body image can be contagious: An examination of college women facing situational body image threats
Miller, K. E., Kelly, A. C., & Kraus, G. E. (2022) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.06.008 · Cited by 7
Self-esteem in new light: a qualitative study of experiences of internet-based cognitive behaviour therapy for low self-esteem in adolescents
Berg, M., Klemetz, H., Lindegaard, T., & Andersson, G. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05328-0 · Cited by 12
“The treatment was mainly inspired by the cognitive techniques developed by Fennell [7], but also self-deter-mination theory [18] (SDT), and self-compassion theory [19].”
BackgroundMethod
The Impact of Stigma on Self-Management Behavior Among People with HIV in China: The Role of Social Support and Self-Esteem
Huang, H., Zhang, L., Tu, L., Zhang, X., Zhong, H., Liu, Q., Liu, Y., & Chen, H. (2024) · AIDS Patient Care and STDs · doi:10.1089/apc.2024.0104 · Cited by 7
“36 When Mikula and colleagues studied patients with multiple sclerosis, they found a signi ﬁ cant positive correlation between self-esteem and self-management.”
Evaluating Trends in Interior Design Strategies and Their Impact on the Emotional Experience of Older Adults
Li, L., Wang, S., Mansor, N., Azmi, A., & Xiang, J. (2025) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings15020249 · Cited by 7
“Similarly, Crocker and Park [82] emphasized that a sense of personal control fosters emotional comfort, reducing anxiety and enhancing self-worth.”
Introducing the FoRe-Squares Model: Focus Support and Reward as Key Predictors of Effective Technology-Augmented Instruction
Eitel, A., Krebs, M.-C., & Schöne, C. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10045-z · Cited by 11
“These include needs (e.g., Dweck, 2017; Ryan & Deci, 2000), motives, achievement goals and goal-complexes (Elliot & Thrash, 2001), interest, contingent self-esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004), emotional incentives, and others (see Elliot & Dweck, 2004 for an overview).”
Contingencies of Self-Worth and Global Self-Esteem Among College Women: The Role of Masculine and Feminine Traits Endorsement
Mandal, E., & Moroń, M. (2019) · Social Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.32872/spb.v14i1.33507 · Cited by 9
“If self-esteem is unstable, based on external criteria of self-assessment (e.g. approval of other people), and is inconsistent with implic‐ it self-esteem (Johnson, 2016), this can lead to a deterioration of psychological function‐ ing (Crocker & Park, 2004; Kernis, 2003).”
Background
Maternal child-based worth predicts children’s academic contingent self-worth via perceived maternal achievement-oriented psychological control
Ching, B. H. (2023) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2023.2207794 · Cited by 7
Life after death: evidence of the Hoover Dam as a hero project that defends against mortality reminders
Ross, H. C., & Wolfe, S. E. (2016) · Water History · doi:10.1007/s12685-015-0151-9 · Cited by 6
“For all of the defensive protection a hero project offers, that project may only provide a temporary defense against death-thoughts because bolstering self-esteem is an ongoing pursuit (Crocker and Park 2004).”
Background
Academically contingent self-worth and vulnerability: When approach self-validation goals are more threatening than avoidance self-validation goals
Lawrence, J. S., & Smith, J. L. (2017) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2017.1292183 · Cited by 7
“Self-validation goals may help explain why people are especially prone to negative outcomes in domains of contingency (Burhans & Dweck, 1995; Crocker & Park, 2004; Dykman, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The Relationship between Regional Gray Matter Volume of Social Exclusion Regions and Personal Self-Esteem Is Moderated by Collective Self-Esteem
Wu, X., Chen, Y., Chen, B., Guan, L., & Zhao, Y. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01989 · Cited by 7
“It has been suggested that PSE could buffer negative emotions (Holland et al., 2002; Brown, 2010), such as sadness, anger, shame, as well as other intensely negative emotions (Crocker, 2002; Crocker and Park, 2004).”
Background
Self-compassion Buffers Impaired Decision-Making by Potential Problem Gamblers in a Casino Setting
Bailis, D. S., Brais, N., Single, A. N., & Schellenberg, B. J. I. (2021) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-020-09993-8 · Cited by 7
“In particular, unlike self-esteem, self-compassion reduces the feelings of ego threat and fear of negative social evaluations that otherwise commonly occur in response to hardship or failure, and that can make coping with these situations even more difficult (Crocker and Park 2004; Leary et al. 2007; Leary and Guadagn…”
Background
The shame of implicit racial bias
Stevens, F., & Shriver, E. R. (2022) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2022.2046538 · Cited by 9
“Mitigating this threat becomes a priority, and other concerns, such as information accuracy, meaning, or consequences of such information that could be beneficial for other long-term goals, become secondary (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Going for broke: Self-compassion, risky decision-making, and differences in problem gambling severity among undergraduates
Bailis, D. S., Single, A. N., Brais, N., & Schellenberg, B. J. I. (2022) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2022.2104363 · Cited by 7
“…in that they gamble frequently as compared with adults in the general population, are in a developmental stage and normative environment of heightened risktaking, and are in the age range when most adults with gambling problems typically started gambling (Engwall et al., 2004; LaBrie et al., 2003).”
Background
Pretty, meaningful lives: physical attractiveness and experienced and perceived meaning in life
Sanders, C. A., Jenkins, A. T., & King, L. A. (2022) · Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2022.2155222 · Cited by 6
Das Selbst
Morf, C. C. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-65297-8_5 · Cited by 7
Striving for identity goals by self-symbolizing on Instagram
Sciara, S., Contu, F., Regalia, C., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2023) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-023-10039-w · Cited by 9
“Additionally, they apply self-validation strategies linked to their specific domains of contingent self-esteem, aiming not only to succeed but also to prove their success within these particular domains (Crocker & Park, 2004, 2012 ).”
Method
Physiological and Behavioral Reactivity when One's Self-Worth is Staked on Competence
Blom, V., Johnson, M., & Patching, G. R. (2011) · Individual Differences Research · doi:10.65030/idr.09013 · Cited by 7
Muscular strength is associated with self-esteem in college men but not women
Ciccolo, J. T., SantaBarbara, N. J., DUNSIGER, S. I., Busch, A. M., & Bartholomew, J. B. (2015) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105315592051 · Cited by 7
“Contingent self-esteem can be defined as the extent to which an individual’s self evaluation is dependent upon a self-imposed criterion or event (Crocker and Park, 2004; Crocker and Wolfe, 2001).”
Background
Automatic Ability Attribution after Failure: A Dual Process View of Achievement Attribution
Sakaki, M., & Murayama, K. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063066 · Cited by 7
“Importantly, past studies indicated that people are aware of those maladaptive consequences of ability attribution [17–18].”
Following and Resisting Body Image Ideals in Advertising: The Moderating Role of Extrinsic Contingency Focus
Williams, T. J., Schimel, J., Hayes, J., & Usta, M. (2013) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2013.836133 · Cited by 7
“Over the past 15 years, many self-esteem theorists have stressed that becoming highly focused on extrinsic contingencies in acquiring self-esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004; Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, 2003) can lead to a defensive and fragile form of self-regard.”
Background
Memory for Eye Gaze: Accuracy, Bias, and the Role of Facial Emotion
Max Weisbuch, A., Lamer, S. A., & Ford, B. Q. (2013) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2013.31.6.686 · Cited by 7
Self-Referent Constructs and Medical Sociology: In Search of an Integrative Framework
Kaplan, H. B. (2007) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/002214650704800201 · Cited by 7
INVESTIGATION OF PERSONAL QUALITIES CONTRIBUTING TO PSYHOLOGICAL RESILIENCE AMONG EARTHQUAKE SURVIVORS: A MODEL TESTING STUDY
Karaırmak, Ö. (2007) · Cited by 7

Authors: Crocker, J., & Park, L. E.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
ORCID: Crocker, Jennifer
Park, Lora E.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2004-05
Volume: 130
Issue: 3
Pages: 392-414
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392
OpenAlex: W2139936398
Semantic Scholar: 924706e15f8baf8a3f9cec05a301a422a2f47c1f
Cited by: 1,402
References: 305
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 73 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 62
FWCI: 5.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (1k02mh001747-01a1)
National Institute of Mental Health (K02 MH01747-01, R01 MH5886901)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, self-worth, learning, relatedness, autonomy, self-regulation, mental health, physical health
MeSH terms: Culture, Emotions, Goals, Humans, Internal-External Control, Interpersonal Relations, Motivation, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Social Perception, Time

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The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

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