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The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

Crocker, Jennifer, Park, Lora E.·2004·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.

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“While individuals strive to maintain high self-esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004), the interpersonal environment can sometimes frustrate belonging and self-esteem goals by failing to provide support, which communicates to the individual that they are not valued (Leary et al., 2006).”
Background
Stress on the Dance Floor: The Cortisol Stress Response to Social-Evaluative Threat in Competitive Ballroom Dancers
Rohleder, N., Beulen, S. E., Chen, E., Wolf, J. M., & Kirschbaum, C. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206293986 · Cited by 242
The Connections Between Self-Esteem and Psychopathology
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“In light of this, it is not surprising that selfesteem—and the pursuit of self-esteem—has been tied to both the development and expression of psychopathology (Crocker and Park 2004).”
Background
Self-esteem and subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal, relational, and collective self-esteem
Du, H., King, R. B., & Chi, P. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183958 · Cited by 238
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The vision of recovery today: what it is and what it means for services.
Farkas, M. D. (2007) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 228
All I need is a stage to shine: Narcissists' leader emergence and performance
Nevicka, B., Hoogh, A. H. B. D., Vianen, A. E. M. V., Beersma, B., & McIlwain, D. J. F. (2011) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.07.011 · Cited by 232
Empowering or Oppressing? Development and Exploration of the Enjoyment of Sexualization Scale
Liss, M., Erchull, M. J., & Ramsey, L. R. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210386119 · Cited by 260
“Nevertheless, researchers have pointed to the potential negative effects of pursuing self-esteem, especially self-esteem contingent on external approval (e.g., Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Self-defeating behaviors in organizations: The relationship between thwarted belonging and interpersonal work behaviors.
Thau, S., Aquino, K. F., & Poortvliet, P. M. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.3.840 · Cited by 227
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Cha, S. E., Hewlin, P. F., Roberts, L. M., Buckman, B. R., Leroy, H., Steckler, E. L., Ostermeier, K. K., & Cooper, D. (2019) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2016.0108 · Cited by 250
“…values as a guide for behavior, their feelings of self-worthwill be high and stable because they are rooted in the true self, rather than contingent on (and thus vulnerable to) one’s success or failure with respect to external standards (Crocker & Park, 2004; Kernis, 2003; Wood et al., 2008).”
Background
Capitalizing on one's advantages: Role of core self-evaluations.
Judge, T. A., & Hurst, C. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.5.1212 · Cited by 288
“Many have argued that success is produced by perseverance in the face of hardship and initial failure (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Yet, little mentioned are those who seize upon and exploit advantages, whether earned through personal effort or bestowed by fortune. As Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi noted, social…”
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Affirmed yet unaware: Exploring the role of awareness in the process of self-affirmation.
Sherman, D. K., Cohen, G. L., Nelson, L. D., Nussbaum, A. D., Bunyan, D. P., & Garcia, J. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015451 · Cited by 223
“When people explicitly pursue happiness, or explicitly strive to boost their self-esteem, such acts can be selfdefeating and lead to less happiness and reduced self-esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004; Schooler, Ariely, & Loewenstein, 2003).”
Background
Let Us Eat and Drink, for Tomorrow We Shall Die: Effects of Mortality Salience and Self‐Esteem on Self‐Regulation in Consumer Choice
Ferraro, R., Shiv, B., & Bettman, J. R. (2005) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/429601 · Cited by 274
Collective narcissism moderates the effect of in-group image threat on intergroup hostility.
de Zavala, A. G., Cichocka, A. K., & Iskra‐Golec, I. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032215 · Cited by 232
Narcissistic Subtypes and Contingent Self‐Esteem: Do All Narcissists Base Their Self‐Esteem on the Same Domains?
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Clark, C. B., & Pickard, J. D. (2008) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00503.x · Cited by 219
“Ironically, their reliance on the evaluations of others may actually foster greater self-esteem instability and make these individuals more vulnerable to negative experiences (e.g., social rejection, failure) when they do not receive the approval from others that they desire (Crocker & Knight, 2005; Crocker & Park, 20…”
Background
The Pursuit of Self‐Esteem: Contingencies of Self‐Worth and Self‐Regulation
Crocker, J., Brook, A. T., Niiya, Y., & Villacorta, M. A. (2006) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00427.x · Cited by 240
Self-citation
Self-Compassion and Psychological Well-being
Neff, K., & Germer, C. (2017) · Oxford Handbooks Online · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190464684.013.27 · Cited by 215
“There are potential problems with high self-esteem, however, not in terms of having it, but in terms of getting and keeping it (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
When Death is Good for Life: Considering the Positive Trajectories of Terror Management
Vail, K. E., Juhl, J., Arndt, J., Vess, M., Routledge, C., & Rutjens, B. T. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868312440046 · Cited by 210
“Although problems can arise when pursuing self-esteem contingencies (Crocker & Park, 2004), certain contingencies may potentiate more productive responses than others.”
Background
Parenting and children's motivation at school.
Grolnick, W. S., Friendly, R. W., & Bellas, V. M. (2009) · doi:10.4324/9780203879498-21 · Cited by 209
How the rich (and happy) get richer (and happier): Relationship of core self-evaluations to trajectories in attaining work success.
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“Such simplistic advice, of course, has garnered its share of criticism (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2005), and there are those who believe that the benefits of a positive self-concept are more illusory than real (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003; Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Self-Love's Lost Labor: A Self-Enhancement Model of Workplace Incivility
Chen, Y., Ferris, D. L., Kwan, H. K., Yan, M. N., Zhou, M., & Hong, Y. (2012) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2010.0906 · Cited by 223
Contingencies of Self-Worth and Social-Networking-Site Behavior
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“Park 31 notes that anxiety over expectations of being rejected or accepted by others based on appearance is inherently interpersonal.”
Influential
Doing Gender in the Bedroom: Investing in Gender Norms and the Sexual Experience
Sanchez, D., Crocker, J., & Boike, K. R. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205277333 · Cited by 218
Self-citation
Collective Narcissism: Political Consequences of Investing Self‐Worth in the Ingroup’s Image
Golec de Zavala, A., Dyduch‐Hazar, K., & Lantos, D. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12569 · Cited by 200
“…to the social level of self; the concept of individual narcissism understood as a desire for continual external validation of an inflated self-view (Crocker & Park, 2004; Emmons, 1987; Horney, 1937; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001; Raskin & Terry, 1988; Rhodewalt & Morf, 1995; Rhodewalt & Sorrow, 2003).”
Background
Triple jeopardy? Mental health at the intersection of gender, race, and class
Rosenfield, S. (2012) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.010 · Cited by 202
Work Stress, Support, and Mental Health in Construction
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Stigma and Group Inequality
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Persistent pursuit of need-satisfying goals leads to increased happiness: A 6-month experimental longitudinal study
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Secure Versus Fragile High Self‐Esteem as a Predictor of Verbal Defensiveness: Converging Findings Across Three Different Markers
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“In addition, individuals high in contingent self-worth based on others’ approval seek excessive relational reassurance from their partner and interpret benign information as rejecting, both of which serve to undermine their relationships ( Crocker & Park, 2004 ).”
Background
Interpersonal Injustice and Workplace Deviance
Ferris, D. L., Spence, J. R., Brown, D. J., & Heller, D. A. (2010) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206310372259 · Cited by 211
“Integrating an esteem threat perspective, such predictions may hold only when the thwarted goals reflect part of the selfconcept or goals in domains upon which self-esteem is contingent (i.e., contingent self-esteem; Crocker & Park, 2004; Ferris, Brown, Lian, & Keeping, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluential

Authors: Crocker, J., & Park, L. E.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
ORCID: Crocker, Jennifer
Park, Lora E.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2004-05
Volume: 130
Issue: 3
Pages: 392-414
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392
OpenAlex: W2139936398
Semantic Scholar: 924706e15f8baf8a3f9cec05a301a422a2f47c1f
Cited by: 1,402
References: 305
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 73 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 62
FWCI: 5.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (1k02mh001747-01a1)
National Institute of Mental Health (K02 MH01747-01, R01 MH5886901)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, self-worth, learning, relatedness, autonomy, self-regulation, mental health, physical health
MeSH terms: Culture, Emotions, Goals, Humans, Internal-External Control, Interpersonal Relations, Motivation, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Social Perception, Time

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The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

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