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The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

Crocker, Jennifer, Park, Lora E.·2004·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.

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Exline, J. J. (2008) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11771-005 · Cited by 41
Me, Myself, and Money II: Relative Deprivation Predicts Disordered Gambling Severity via Delay Discounting, Especially Among Gamblers Who Have a Financially Focused Self-Concept
Tabri, N., Shead, N. W., & Wohl, M. J. A. (2017) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-017-9673-7 · Cited by 40
INVESTIGATION OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING, SELF ESTEEM, PERCEIVED GENERAL SELF-EFFICACY, LEVEL OF HOPE AND COGNITIVE EMOTION REGULATION STRATEGIES
Akfirat, O. (2020) · European Journal of Education Studies · doi:10.46827/ejes.v7i9.3267 · Cited by 28
“The healthy pursuit of self-esteem: Comment on and alternative to the Crocker and Park (2004) formulation.”
Background
Self-concept and self-esteem: How the content of the self-concept reveals sources and functions of self-esteem
Lachowicz-Tabaczek, K., & Śniecińska, J. (2011) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.2478/v10059-011-0005-y · Cited by 35
Chinese Culture and Its Potential Influence on Entrepreneurship
Wang, R. (2012) · International Business Research · doi:10.5539/ibr.v5n10p76 · Cited by 43
“Crocker and Park (2004) pointed out that the pursuit of self-esteem was costly.”
Background
LOS ESTILOS DE ENSEÑANZA Y APRENDIZAJE COMO SOPORTE DE LA ACTIVIDAD DOCENTE
González-Peiteado, M. (2013) · Revista de Estilos de Aprendizaje · doi:10.55777/rea.v6i11.971 · Cited by 38
Does the Listener Matter? The Effects of Capitalization on Storytellers’ Evaluations of Travel Memories
Tung, V. W. S., Cheung, C., & Law, R. (2017) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287517729759 · Cited by 38
“In the presence of others, individuals may maximize the significance of their experience to enhance self-evaluations and desired social identities (Crocker and Park 2004).”
Background
Negative affective spillover from daily events predicts early response to cognitive therapy for depression.
Cohen, L. H., Gunthert, K. C., Butler, A. C., Parrish, B. P., Wenze, S. J., & Beck, J. S. (2008) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014131 · Cited by 38
“The assumption was that these patients would begin treatment with better “affect regulation skills” and that, therefore, their affect would be less contingent on daily conflicts and disappointments (Crocker & Park, 2004; Gunthert et al., 2005).”
Background
The Psychology of Fandom: Understanding the Etiology, Motives, and Implications of Fanship
Hirt, E. R., & Clarkson, J. J. (2011) · doi:10.4324/9780203844113-11 · Cited by 38
Self-critical Rumination and Associated Metacognitions as Mediators of the Relationship Between Perfectionism and Self-esteem
Fearn, M., Marino, C., Spada, M. M., & Kolubinski, D. C. (2021) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-021-00404-4 · Cited by 48
High Self-Esteem: Multiple Forms and Their Outcomes
Heppner, W. L., & Kernis, M. H. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_15 · Cited by 41
Cognitive and affective processes underlying career change
Muja, N., & Appelbaum, S. H. (2012) · Career Development International · doi:10.1108/13620431211283814 · Cited by 47
Self-esteem and body image in females: The mediating role of self-compassion and appearance contingent self-worth.
Stapleton, P., Crighton, G. J., Carter, B., & Pidgeon, A. M. (2017) · The Humanistic Psychologist · doi:10.1037/hum0000059 · Cited by 37
“Additionally, high self-esteem is associated with a host of psychological benefits (Crocker & Park, 2004) including high levels of positive affect, positive adjustment, and being a protective factor in the face of adversity (Kling, Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999).”
Background
The dark side of perceived positive regard: When parents’ well-intended motivation strategies increase students’ test anxiety
Otterpohl, N., Lazar, R., & Stiensmeier‐Pelster, J. (2018) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.11.002 · Cited by 42
Converging Toward an Integrated Theory of Self-Esteem: Reply to Crocker and Nuer (2004), Ryan and Deci (2004), and Leary (2004).
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Arndt, J., & Schimel, J. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.483 · Cited by 39
Relationships can drive some to drink: Relationship-contingent self-esteem and drinking problems
Rodriguez, L. M., Knee, C. R., & Neighbors, C. (2014) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407513494037 · Cited by 37
“…reflect intimacy and a sense of relatedness to one’s partner, RCSE is grounded in perspectives on authenticity of the self and feelings of self-worth (Crocker & Park, 2004; Deci & Ryan, 2000), and reflects an emotionally costly, unhealthy pursuit of self-esteem through one’s relationship.”
BackgroundInfluential
Building Emotional Safety for Students in School Environments: Challenges and Opportunities
Shean, M., & Mander, D. J. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-3959-6_12 · Cited by 52
Compartmentalization: A Window on the Defensive Self
Thomas, J. S., Ditzfeld, C. P., & Showers, C. J. (2013) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12061 · Cited by 36
Contingent on contingencies: Connections between anger rumination, self-esteem, and aggression
Turner, K. A., & White, B. C. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.03.023 · Cited by 36
Self-Esteem
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Jordan, C., & Cameron, J. J. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0124 · Cited by 39
Motivated Collective Defensiveness: Group Members Prioritize Counterarguing Out-Group Criticism Over Getting Their Work Done
Thürmer, J. L., McCrea, S. M., & McIntyre, B. M. (2018) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550618762298 · Cited by 35
“Thus, threats to the goal of maintaining a positive social identity should result in the allocation of resources, such as time, toward defending group identity (cf. Baumeister & Scher, 1988; Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Performing under challenge: The differing effects of ability and normative performance goals.
Chung, Y., Bong, M., & Kim, S. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000393 · Cited by 38
“As in previous studies (Crocker & Park, 2004; Dykman, 1998), students who were preoccupied with validating their ability by performing well suffered from higher anxiety, lower interest, and less persistence compared with those who strived to outperform others or to improve their own reasoning…”
Background
Is Positiveness in Organizations Always Desirable?
Judge, T. A., & Ilieș, R. (2004) · Academy of Management Perspectives · doi:10.5465/ame.2004.15268761 · Cited by 35
Predictors of honesty, intent, and valence of Facebook self-disclosure
Hollenbaugh, E. E., & Ferris, A. L. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.030 · Cited by 37
Content and structure of the self-concept.
McConnell, A. R., & Strain, L. M. (2007) · Cited by 37
An open trial of mindfulness-based stress reduction for young adults with social anxiety disorder.
Hjeltnes, A., Molde, H., Schanche, E., Vøllestad, J., Lillebostad Svendsen, J., Moltu, C., & Binder, P. (2017) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12342 · Cited by 34
Identity-Signaling Behavior
Gal, D. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107706552.010 · Cited by 36
Psychological and situational determinants of burnout in adolescent athletes
Markati, A., Psychountaki, M., Kingston, K. M., Karteroliotis, K. E., & Apostolidis, N. G. (2018) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2017.1421680 · Cited by 43
“…in competitive youth sports has been more complex in terms of capturing the self-esteem concept both as a stable trait and an unstable state (Crocker & Park, 2004); interpreting that self-esteem rises or falls, around the individuals typical trait level, due to their accomplishments and…”
Background
Focusing on one’s own appearance leads to body shame in women but not men: The mediating role of body surveillance and appearance-contingent self-worth
Moya-Garófano, A., & Moya, M. (2019) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.02.008 · Cited by 34
“Me”, “We”, and Materialism: Associations between Contingent Self-Worth and Materialistic Values across Cultures
Zhang, Y., Hawk, S. T., Opree, S. J., de Vries, D. A., & Branje, S. (2020) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2020.1759496 · Cited by 34
“Contingencies of self-worth are important determinants of behavior and wellbeing (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
The Psychology of Populism
(2021) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003057680 · Cited by 39
An exploration of competitiveness and caring in relation to psychopathology
McEwan, K., Gilbert, P., & Duarte, J. (2011) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.2011.02010.x · Cited by 34
Perceived autonomy and self-esteem in Dutch dialysis patients: The importance of illness and treatment perceptions
Jansen, D. L., Rijken, M., Heijmans, M., & Boeschoten, E. W. (2009) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870440902853215 · Cited by 36
“The domains from which people derive their self-worth (e.g. abilities, achievements) are rather stable, but goals can be chosen moment by moment (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Effective Pre-school and Primary Education 3-11 Project (EPPE 3-11)
Wc, L., & Ons, H. (2008) · Cited by 34
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Contingent Self-Esteem and Materialism: A Correlational and Experimental Investigation
Nagpaul, T., & Pang, J. S. (2017) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21009 · Cited by 34
“Although Crocker and Park (2004) have regarded family support, virtue and God’s love as relatively internal contingencies of self-esteem, other researchers have argued that these seemingly internal contingencies actually reflect external cultural and societal standards that people are expected to…”
BackgroundInfluential

Authors: Crocker, J., & Park, L. E.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
ORCID: Crocker, Jennifer
Park, Lora E.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2004-05
Volume: 130
Issue: 3
Pages: 392-414
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392
OpenAlex: W2139936398
Semantic Scholar: 924706e15f8baf8a3f9cec05a301a422a2f47c1f
Cited by: 1,402
References: 305
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 73 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 62
FWCI: 5.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (1k02mh001747-01a1)
National Institute of Mental Health (K02 MH01747-01, R01 MH5886901)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, self-worth, learning, relatedness, autonomy, self-regulation, mental health, physical health
MeSH terms: Culture, Emotions, Goals, Humans, Internal-External Control, Interpersonal Relations, Motivation, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Social Perception, Time

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The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

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