Cited by 1,402Personality Traits and PsychologyEmotions and Moral BehaviorDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 314 of the 314 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

Crocker, Jennifer, Park, Lora E.·2004·Psychological Bulletin

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Researchers have recently questioned the benefits associated with having high self-esteem. The authors propose that the importance of self-esteem lies more in how people strive for it rather than whether it is high or low. They argue that in domains in which their self-worth is invested, people adopt the goal to validate their abilities and qualities, and hence their self-worth. When people have self-validation goals, they react to threats in these domains in ways that undermine learning; relatedness; autonomy and self-regulation; and over time, mental and physical health. The short-term emotional benefits of pursuing self-esteem are often outweighed by long-term costs. Previous research on self-esteem is reinterpreted in terms of self-esteem striving. Cultural roots of the pursuit of self-esteem are considered. Finally, the alternatives to pursuing self-esteem, and ways of avoiding its costs, are discussed.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392

Cites

314 of 314 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68 · Cited by 54,599
The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01 · Cited by 34,210
The Principles of Psychology
James, W. (1891) · Personality Culture Society · doi:10.1037/11059-000 · Cited by 25,876
The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497 · Cited by 23,245
Advances In Experimental Social Psychology
(2022) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(22)x0002-6 · Cited by 22,559
Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.98.2.224 · Cited by 21,995
Untitled work
(1969) · Cited by 18,340
Motivation and Personality
(1997) · Naming the Mind: How Psychology Found its Language · doi:10.4135/9781446221815.n7 · Cited by 15,148
The Handbook of Social Psychology
Gravatt, A. E., Lindzey, G. E., & Aronson, F. (1969) · The Family Coordinator · doi:10.2307/582242 · Cited by 12,518
The case for motivated reasoning.
Kunda, Z. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480 · Cited by 9,022

Show all 305 references

Research works printed but not linked: 26

Allport, 1955, Becoming.
10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226 · DOI · Paper page
Baumeister, 1998, The self., Vol. 2, 680
10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 · DOI · Paper page
Baumeister, 2001, Narcissism as addiction to esteem., Psychological Inquiry, 12, 206
Benson, 1998, What kids need to succeed: Proven, practical ways to raise good kids.
Bowlby, 1969, Attachment., Vol. 1
10.1037/0021-843X.92.3.330 · DOI
Crocker, 2003, Seeking self-esteem: Maintenance, enhancement, and protection of self-worth., 291
Cross, 2001, Patterns of African-American identity development: A life-span perspective., 243
deCharms, 1968, Personal causation.
10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.139 · DOI · Paper page
Fredrickson, 2001, Positive emotions., 123
Glennon, 1999, 200 ways to raise a girl's self-esteem.
10.1037/0278-6133.10.5.330 · DOI
10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1268 · DOI
Kiecolt-Glaser, 1991, Spousal caregivers of dementia victims: Longitudinal changes in immunity and health., Psychosomatic Medicine, 53, 345, 10.1097/00006842-199107000-00001 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.310 · DOI
10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 · DOI · Paper page
Schrof, 1992, Pumped up., U.S. News & World Report, 55
Seligman, 1998, The American way of blame., Monitor on Psychology, 29, 4
Smith, 2001, Hollow kids: Recapturing the soul of a generation lost to the self-esteem myth.
Stroebe, 2000, Health psychology
10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.797 · DOI
10.1037/0022-3514.52.1.72 · DOI
10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.1007 · DOI · Paper page

Sorted by citations

Items 801–900 of 1,000

Do Classroom Goal Structures Moderate Effects of the Academic Contingency of Self-Worth? Influence on Intrinsic Interest and Self-Regulated Learning Strategies
OHTANI, K., Nakaya, M., Ito, T., & Okada, R. (2012) · The Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.5926/jjep.60.355 · Cited by 8
Do securely and insecurely attached children derive well‐being from different forms of gender identity?
Menon, M., Menon, M., Cooper, P. J., Pauletti, R. E., Tobin, D. D., Spatta, B. C., Hafen, C. A., Peets, K., Hodges, E. V. E., & Perry, D. G. (2016) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12191 · Cited by 7
Assessment of Implicit Self-Esteem in Older Adults: The Role of Actual and Ideal Self-Esteem in Negative Mood
Demeyer, I., Romero, N., & Raedt, R. D. (2017) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191117691607 · Cited by 8
“It can be defined as thoughts, feelings, and evaluations of the self and has a strong relationship with emotional well-being (e.g., Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
The role of self–esteem and passion in determining resilience in athletes: an application of structural equation modelling
Bayköse, N., Yavuz, S. C., Keskin, P., & Kılınç, M. (2017) · International Journal of Sport Exercise & Training Sciences · doi:10.18826/useeabd.327186 · Cited by 8
The interaction of stigma and distress: predicting the help-seeking attitudes of United States students
Surapaneni, S., Larson, L. M., Heath, P. J., & Vogel, D. L. (2018) · British Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1080/03069885.2018.1504201 · Cited by 9
“This would fit with assertions from more general psychological theories (e.g. self-affirmation theory; Steele, 1988) which suggest that increased threat to one’s identity could intensify anxiety and lead to avoidance of the threat (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Result
The bi‐dimensional rejection taxonomy: Organizing responses to interpersonal rejection along antisocial–prosocial and engaged–disengaged dimensions
Sunami, N., Nadzan, M. A., & Jaremka, L. M. (2019) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12497 · Cited by 10
“Although these constructs have important differences, they share significant conceptual underpinnings representing an overlapping construct, sensitivity to rejection (Crocker & Park, 2004; Park, 2010).”
Background
The positive side of call centers: an Indian perspective
Mukherjee, T., & Maheshwari, S. (2014) · South Asian Journal of Global Business Research · doi:10.1108/sajgbr-03-2012-0030 · Cited by 7
The goal-striving reasons framework: Further evidence for its predictive power for subjective well-being on a sub-dimensional level and on an individual goal-striving reasons level as well as evidence for its theoretical difference to self-concordance
Ehrlich, C. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-0158-y · Cited by 7
A Psychosocial Resource Impairment Model Explaining Partner Violence and Distress: Moderating Role of Income
Williams, S. L., & Mickelson, K. D. (2007) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9120-5 · Cited by 7
Relationships Among Self-esteem, Psychological and Cognitive Flexibility, and Psychological Symptomatology
Al-Jabari, R. M. (2012) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc177172 · Cited by 7
Relationship between Racial Microaggression and Psychological Wellbeing of African American College Students.
Helm, C. A. (2013) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · Cited by 7
Roles of Korean mothers' child‐based self‐worth and psychological control in child outcomes
Kyeong, Y., Seol, K. O., Park, J., & Varghese, A. M. (2023) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12930 · Cited by 6
Conceptualizing social media contingent self-esteem: Associations between echo chambers, contingent self-esteem, and problematic social media use
Martinez, A., Browne, L., & Knee, C. R. (2024) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2024-3-2 · Cited by 10
Positive Feedback as a Lever to Boost Students’ STEM Outcomes
Park, L. E., Ward, D. E., Moore-Russo, D. A., Rickard, B., Vessels, V., & Hundley, J. (2024) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672241265954 · Cited by 8
“…in individualistic cultures such as North America, receiving positive feedback is consistent with self-enhancement motives to feel good about oneself (Crocker & Park, 2004); in collectivistic cultures such as East Asia, critical feedback and self-improvement are prioritized (Heine et al., 2001).”
Self-citation
Engagement With Clean-Eating Hashtags, Orthorexia Nervosa, and the Sense of Self on Instagram a Mixed Methods Study
Horowitz, R., Athanasiadou-Lewis, C., & Zervoulis, K. (2025) · The European Journal of Counselling Psychology · doi:10.46853/001c.141519 · Cited by 6
Extreme Forms of Ingroup Positivity and their Negative Consequences for Intergroup Relations
de Zavala, A. G., & Schatz, R. T. (2013) · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-27222-5_8 · Cited by 7
Learners' habitual social comparisons can hinder effective learning partner choice
Ray, D. G., Neugebauer, J., & Sassenberg, K. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.08.003 · Cited by 7
“This is especially true among learners with reasonable self-efficacy (i.e., learners who believe that their learning effort will lead to improved ability; Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
The consumer–activity relationship and separation distress
Hawkins, M. A., & Thyroff, A. (2023) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-11-2021-0866 · Cited by 6
Increasing self‐esteem for vulnerable young women: A case study of entrepreneurship training for vulnerable young women in Thailand
Chalayonnavin, A. (2023) · British Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1111/1467-8578.12486 · Cited by 6
Ideology and the Microfoundations of Conflict
Müller, V., & Gries, T. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197670187.001.0001 · Cited by 6
Longitudinal effects of helping war refugees on intergroup threat and fear of war: The role of perceived helping functionality
Kossowska, M., Chan, H., Hong, Y., & Szumowska, E. (2024) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302241297927 · Cited by 6
“Although these needs are different, they underlie a variety of selected, directed, and persistent behaviors that promote intrapersonal and interpersonal integrity, and coherence (see also Allport, 1955; Crocker & Park, 2004; Leary & Baumeister, 2000).”
Perfectionism and Goal Setting Behaviors: Optimizing Opportunities for Success and Avoiding the Potential for Failure
Diamond, G. M., Greenbaum, M., Shelef, K., & Shahar, G. (2012) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2012.5.4.430 · Cited by 6
Influence of level and instability of self-esteem on help-seeking orientation and help-seeking
Wakimoto, R. (2008) · THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.2130/jjesp.47.160 · Cited by 6
Efficacy of educational workshop on self-esteem of students at Kashan university of medical sciences
Omidi, A., Akbari, H., & Arani, T. S. J. (2011) · KAUMS Journal · Cited by 6
Self-esteem, self-symbolizing, and academic recognition: behavioral evidence from curricula vitae
Bi, W., Chan, H. F., & Torgler, B. (2019) · Scientometrics · doi:10.1007/s11192-019-03037-8 · Cited by 6
Burning the candle at both ends: The role of financial contingency of self-worth and work-family conflict on job and parental well-being
Park, L. E., Lin, G.-X., Chang, Y.-H., O’Brien, C., & Ward, D. E. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111824 · Cited by 5
“Paradoxically, though, the desire to protect, maintain, and enhance self-esteem can be costly to oneself and one's relationships with others (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Open Peer Commentary and Author's Response
van Zomeren, M., Täuber, S., Kutlaca, M., & Wermser, F. (2015) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2006 · Cited by 7
Analysis of factors influencing substance use craving among Chinese substance users
Guo, H., Wang, J., Wang, S., Zhou, J., & Wang, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1070215 · Cited by 6
“found that people with lower global self-esteem but higher contingent self-esteem were more likely to use substances (34).”
Background
Psychosocial linkages of consumers' income security, financial well-being and social loneliness
Smith, B., & Eng, S. (2024) · International Journal of Bank Marketing · doi:10.1108/ijbm-03-2023-0176 · Cited by 9
Understanding self-esteem in the consumer journey: A model of purchase self-esteem antecedents
Razmus, W., & Łaguna, M. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06604-2 · Cited by 12
“The majority of indi - viduals want to maximize their feelings of self-worth (Josephs et al., 2003), maintain and protect them, and increase them in various ways (Baumeister, 1998; Crocker & Park, 2004), for example, through consumption.”
Die dunkle Seite der Führung: Negatives Führungsverhalten, dysfunktionale Persönlichkeitsmerkmale und situative Einflussfaktoren
Brosi, P., & Spörrle, M. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-31052-2_15 · Cited by 6
“La privation relative et le niveau d'identification comme déclencheurs du désengagement psychologique : une étude exploratoire auprès d'éducatrices”
Laplante, J., & Tougas, F. (2011) · Les cahiers internationaux de psychologie sociale · doi:10.3917/cips.089.0043 · Cited by 11
Externally Contingent and Unstable Self‐Worth as Predictors of Depression in College Women: A 3‐Month Study
Lopez, F. G., Thorne, B., Schoenecker, S. M., Siffert, K. J., Chaliman, R. T., & Castleberry, E. (2014) · Journal of College Counseling · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1882.2014.00051.x · Cited by 6
Self-Compassion, Wellbeing, and Happiness Mitgefühl mit sich selbst, Wohlbefinden und Glücklichsein
Neff, K. D., & Costigan, A. (2014) · Cited by 6
Defending cultural self: A dual-process analysis of cognitive dissonance
Kitayama, S., & Imada, T. (2008) · Advances in motivation and achievement · doi:10.1016/s0749-7423(08)15006-3 · Cited by 6
And the winner is . . . ? Forecasting the outcome of others' competitive efforts.
Kupor, D., Brucks, M., & Huang, S.-C. (2019) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000165 · Cited by 5
Self-esteem enhancement as a strategy for promoting the mental health and averting the occupational problems of nurses
He, L. T., Yu-feng, M., Ke-sen, Z., & Wang, Y. (2019) · Frontiers of Nursing · doi:10.2478/fon-2019-0012 · Cited by 6
The Culturally Situated Self
Rosenmann, A., & Kurman, J. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190679743.003.0017 · Cited by 6
Money priming and children’s self-evaluations
Trzcińska, A. M. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-00736-x · Cited by 6
Influence of an individual's own gains and losses on the evaluation of friends' gambling results: Evidence from ERPs
Yue, T., Huang, X., Yue, C., Xue, L., & Fu, A. (2021) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2021.00651 · Cited by 6
A complex model of differences on gender and institution type in academic achievement, happiness and self-esteem among orphan and nonorphan children from Pakistan
Shuja, K. H. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02283-5 · Cited by 6
“As there is still a genuine lack of consolidated research evidence that can undeniably confirm if self-esteem represents a crucial part in increasing the relationship between academic achievement and happiness (Baumeister et al., 2003; Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Improvement in South African students' outlook due to music involvement
Roy, M. M., Devroop, K., & Getz, L. M. (2014) · Music Education Research · doi:10.1080/14613808.2014.910183 · Cited by 8
“Although it does appear that high self-esteem is beneficial, the pursuit of self-esteem as an end may be detrimental (Crocker and Park 2004).”
Background
Maladaptive Perfectionism and Disordered Eating in College Women: The Mediating Role of Self-Compassion.
Stuart, J. (2009) · ProQuest LLC eBooks · Cited by 6
Objectification theory and sexual health among women
Lustig, K. B. (2012) · ProQuest Demo Repository · Cited by 5
Self-esteem, self-compassion, defensive self-esteem, and related features of narcissism as predictors of aggression
Gottheim, C. P. (2009) · Scholars Archive - University at Albany (University at Albany, State University of New York) · doi:10.54014/g6vp-2dpj · Cited by 6
The Psychopathological Foundations of Conspiracy Theorists
Kumareswaran, D. J. (2014) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17008057 · Cited by 8
Academic failure and psychological disengagement: can belief in school meritocracy make a difference?
Darnon, C., Sicard, A., Normand, A., & Martinot, D. (2024) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2024.2394691 · Cited by 6
“Psychological disengagement is thus a self-protective process helping to avoid the ‘cost’ of pursuing self-esteem in the academic domain (Crocker & Knight, 2005; Crocker & Park, 2004).”
The Effects of Self-esteem, Traditional Gender Roles, and Gender on Reward, Intimacy, and Enhancement as Motivations for Sexual Relations
Sowan, W. (2023) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-023-10160-5 · Cited by 5
“Individuals develop patterns of behavior in different life contexts to increase their self-esteem (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Mindset in the secondary school classroom: interaction with social value of effort and contingencies of self-worth
Donohoe, C., Topping, K. J., & Hannah, E. F. S. (2021) · Educational Psychology in Practice · doi:10.1080/02667363.2021.1905613 · Cited by 8
“Crocker and Park (2004) indicated that contingent self-worth can lead to more effort, so in that sense it could be seen as motivating.”
Background
To Be Compassionate and Feel Worthy: The Bidirectional Relationship Between Self-Compassion and Self-Esteem
Fraser, M. I., Ciarrochi, J., Sahdra, B. K., & Hunt, C. J. (2023) · Mindfulness in behavioral health · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-22348-8_3 · Cited by 5
Indirect effect of impulsivity on suicide risk through self-esteem and depressive symptoms in a population with treatment-resistant depression: A FACE-DR study
Salles, J., Stéphan, F., Molière, F., Bennabi, D., Haffen, É., Bouvard, A., Walter, M., Allauze, E., Llorca, P., Genty, J. B., et al. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.11.063 · Cited by 7
Self-Compassion Moderates the Effect of Contingent Self-Esteem on Well-Being: Evidence from Cross-Sectional Survey and Experiment
Zhang, R., Zhang, X., Yang, M., & Zhang, H. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.32604/ijmhp.2023.045819 · Cited by 5
Spirituality, self-esteem and the mechanisms of social and temporal comparison
Ollivaud, J., Galharret, J., & Roussiau, N. (2023) · Spiritual Psychology and Counseling · doi:10.37898/spc.2023.8.1.187 · Cited by 5
The effect of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) on self-esteem, self-concept, and social anxiety of people with social anxiety disorder
Raee, M., Fatahi, N., Homayoun, M. S., Ezatabadipor, H., & Shams, M. (2022) · ASEAN Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.54615/2231-7805.47259 · Cited by 5
“Today, having self-esteem is one of the most important factors in supporting people who face negative events [8,9].”
Background
Moderation of Success and Failure Feedback by Validation Seeking on Affect Change: Implications for Theories of Cognitive Adaptation and Self‐Worth Regulation
Horváth, P., & Wambolt, P. (2009) · Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9861.2010.00046.x · Cited by 5
Classroom Racial Proportion: Influence on Self-Concept and Social Competence in Zimbabwean Adolescents
Mpofu, E., & Thomas, K. (2006) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.3200/gntp.167.1.93-111 · Cited by 6
Academic Contingency of Self-worth and Intrinsic Motivation in Academic Failure: Undermining and Enhancing Processes for Intrinsic Motivation and the Mediating Role of State Self-esteem and Emotions
Ohtani, K., & Nakaya, M. (2011) · The Japanese Journal of Personality · doi:10.2132/personality.19.206 · Cited by 5
The effect of psychological well-being, psychological help-seeking attitudes and self-esteem on psychological counselor candidates’ psychological symptoms Psikolojik iyi oluş, yardım arama tutumu ve benlik saygısının psikolojik danışman adaylarının psikolojik belirtilerine etkisi
Çakar, F. S., & İKİZ, F. E. (2016) · Journal of Human Sciences · doi:10.14687/jhs.v13i2.3865 · Cited by 5
Promotion by others through social networks
Lynch, B. P., Meisel, M. K., Campbell, W. K., & vanDellen, M. R. (2018) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2018.1505652 · Cited by 5
“However, efforts to improve self-esteem can backfire (Crocker & Park, 2004; Kernis, 2003), and it is thus possible promotion by others is one route that can provide a benefit to self-esteem while mitigating some of the costs of seeking selfesteem through self-promotion.”
Background
Super-Ordinary Bias Among Japanese: Is It Unique to Japanese Culture?
Ohashi, M. M., & Yamaguchi, S. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96232-0_8 · Cited by 5
Compassion is partially selfless: Public self-concept accessibility following compassion and threat
DeLury, S. S., Buffone, A. E. K., Ministero, L. M., & Poulin, M. J. (2018) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2018.1554541 · Cited by 5
“…self confers broader psychological benefits, given the negative relationship outcomes linked to self-image motivations (Canevello & Crocker, 2010, 2011) and the diverse benefits for social functioning and well-being theorized to result from transcending egoistic motives (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Self-Compassion Levels in Music and Non-Music Students.
Kelley, J., & Farley, A. (2019) · Contributions to music education · Cited by 5
Introduction of a Hierarchy of Out-Group Derogation
Havard, C. T., Grieve, F. G., & Peetz, T. B. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-85245-0_6 · Cited by 5
Personal and Contextual Resilience Factors and Their Relations to Psychological Adjustment Outcomes Across the Lifespan: A Meta - Analysis
Lamp, K. E. (2013) · Loyola eCommons (Loyola University of Chicago) · Cited by 5
The Elusive Quantification of Self-Esteem: Current Challenges and Future Directions
Dominicis, S. D., & Molinario, E. (2022) · Health informatics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-94212-0_11 · Cited by 6
Does Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Explain Volunteer Time Allocations? An Exploration of Motivational Time Allowances Using the American Time Use Survey
Babula, M., & Muschert, G. W. (2023) · Journal of Public and Nonprofit Affairs · doi:10.20899/jpna.9.3.1-20 · Cited by 5
“Additional research on self-esteem, such as Crocker and Park (2004), suggests that high or low self-esteem is less of an issue than how one sets their self-esteem goals (e.g., to benefit the self, to help others, or a combination of both).”
Background
The Regulation of Personal Security
Carroll, P. J., Wichman, A. L., Agler, R. A., & Arkin, R. M. (2023) · Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology · doi:10.1155/2023/7593709 · Cited by 5
Financially focused self-concept and disordered gambling are bidirectionally related over time
Tabri, N., Stark, S., Balodis, I. M., Price, A., & Wohl, M. J. A. (2023) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.1080/16066359.2023.2269077 · Cited by 4
“As such, their primary motivation revolves around pursuing financial success, which influences their aspirations, decision-making, and behaviors (Crocker and Park 2004).”
Emotional Spousal Support Can Have Unintended Organizational Outcomes
Çayköylü, S. (2016) · International Journal of Business and Management · doi:10.5539/ijbm.v11n5p69 · Cited by 5
“…so more willin -confidence “ et al., 2003, perior over o bilities (Wilso interdepende 2016 void ision hen e are hers’ antly g to ake these ative ards oting tions t for ence n the er & ith a g to show p. 1) thers n & ncies for the sake of pursuing personal needs and feelings (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Age Differences in the Effects of Self-Esteem
Chui, H. C., & Diehl, M. K. (2016) · GeroPsych · doi:10.1024/1662-9647/a000157 · Cited by 9
A multi‐motive framework for predicting variability in self‐enhancement
Lynch, B. P., & vanDellen, M. R. (2020) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12561 · Cited by 6
Naïve beliefs about self-esteem's importance
Vaughan‐Johnston, T. I., & Jacobson, J. A. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110635 · Cited by 6
The relation of traumatic childhood experiences with psychological symptoms and self-esteem in physical education and sport students
Özbaş, A. A., Gürhan, N., & Koçak, M. (2014) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · doi:10.15314/tjse.14314 · Cited by 5
Estime de soi des élèves de cycle primaire en fonction du niveau de classe et du type de zone d'éducation
Maintier, C., & Alaphilippe, D. (2007) · Bulletin de psychologie · doi:10.3917/bupsy.488.0115 · Cited by 5
Active and passive maladaptive behaviour patterns mediate the relationship between contingent self-esteem and health
Johnson, M. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.039 · Cited by 5
“Subsequently, it appears that self-validation is predominantly sought from relationship or competence issues (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Background
Life course body mass index and adolescent self‐esteem: Evidence from Hong Kong's “Children of 1997” Birth Cohort
Wang, H., Leung, G., & Schooling, C. (2015) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.20984 · Cited by 5
“Self-esteem is known to develop gradually and to become more differentiated as children achieve maturity and interact with significant persons (2).”
Background
An evaluation of positive organizational behavior in Banking Sector of Pakistan: Role of Organization based self-esteem and Organizational Supports
Ismail, K., Khurram, S., Jafri, A., & Khurram, W. (2011) · The Far East Journal of Psychology and Business · Cited by 5
Self-Disclosure on Mobile Instant Messenger: The Structure Relationships among Self-Esteem, Loneliness and Motives for Using KakaoTalk
Jung, B., & 김한구 (2016) · Productivity Review · doi:10.15843/kpapr.30.2.201606.169 · Cited by 5
The Politics of Intergroup Attitudes
(2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108779104.012 · Cited by 5
Self‐Regulation of State Self‐Esteem Following Threat
vanDellen, M. R., Bradfield, E. K., & Hoyle, R. H. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444318111.ch19 · Cited by 5
Self-esteem, graduateness skills and attributes and career adaptability of the young adult in the school-to-work transition phase
Ismail, S. (2015) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa) · Cited by 5
Collective Narcissism, In-Group Satisfaction, and Solidarity in the Face of COVID-19Preprint
Federico, C. M., Golec, A., & Baran, T. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/j6ut3 · Cited by 4
Does Relationship-Contingent Self-Esteem Play a Role in the Stress to Impaired Control Pathway to Alcohol-Related Problems in a College Student Sample?
Kalina, E., Boyd-Frenkel, K., Patock-Peckham, J. A., Schneidewent, L., Broussard, M. L., & Leeman, R. F. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13020185 · Cited by 4
“With contingent self-esteem, one is more likely to perceive criticisms, mistakes, and failures as threats [6].”
Background
Academic contingent self-worth and self-handicapping: an experimental test of failure mindset as a moderator
Ching, B. H., Li, X., & Tan, Y. (2024) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-024-09990-4 · Cited by 5
“In the academic domain, contingent self-worth may initially benefit students’ learning by motivating them to pursue performance goals (Crocker et al., 2004; Osborne & Jones, 2011; Steele, 1997).”
Influential
Depathologizing Queer Adults’ Dating App Use in Canada: Convergent Mixed Methods Study
Sinno, J., Perez‐Brumer, A., Shuper, P. A., & Grace, D. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/72452 · Cited by 4
“Low self-esteem may lead to pursuing external validation [120].”
Fear of negative evaluation mediates and core self-evaluation moderates the relationship between social comparison orientation and social network addiction
Feng, W., Zhang, M., Bu, Y., & Wang, C. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-25327-3 · Cited by 9
“Moreover, individuals with high CSE often demonstrate strong achievement motivation and social investment 49 .”
The Mediating Role of Self-Compassion on the Relationship Between Goal Orientation and Sport-Confidence
Assar, A., Weinberg, R. S., Ward, R. M., & Vealey, R. S. (2022) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2021-0187 · Cited by 4
Students’ age and noncognitive traits predict writing self-efficacy and motivation
Cho, K. W. (2023) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2023.101287 · Cited by 6
Exploring the influence of self-esteem and self-compassion on daily psychological health: Insights from the experience sampling method
Hirano, H., Ishii, K., & Sato, M. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113140 · Cited by 5
Dose Self-Esteem Mediates the Association Between Personality Traits and Happiness? A Structural Equation Modeling Approach
Tsigilis, N., & Srebauite, D. (2015) · Journal of Social Science Studies · doi:10.5296/jsss.v2i2.7370 · Cited by 4
Take a Walk on the Cultural Side: A Journey into Embodied Social Cognition
Bettinsoli, M. L., Suitner, C., & Maass, A. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-78471-3_19 · Cited by 5
How high-intensity sensory consumption fills up resource scarcity: The boundary condition of self-acceptance
Peng, L., Peng, Y., Luo, H., & Deng, Y. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0285853 · Cited by 4
“Self-worth and self-acceptance are two related but distinct concepts in psychology that play different roles in regulating our thoughts, emotions, and behaviour [94].”
Background
An Integrated Investigation Into the Impact of Workplace Shocks on Employee Turnover
Yang, C., Chen, Y., Zhao, X., Miao, L., Leong, A. M. W., & Cui, Z. (2023) · Cornell Hospitality Quarterly · doi:10.1177/19389655231214713 · Cited by 6
“It is a critical lens through which individuals gauge their interactions with the world, drawing from it a sense of worth, purpose, and competence (Crocker & Park, 2004; Mischel & Morf, 2003).”
Background
The Father’s Love: Collective Narcissism and Defensive Reactions to Allegations about Pope John Paul II in Polish Public Opinion
de Zavala, A. G., & Federico, C. M. (2024) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfae008 · Cited by 5
Longitudinal Associations Between Competition Contingent Self-Worth and Materialistic Values Among Chinese College Students: A Latent Growth Model
Yi, C., Wei, J., Liu, Y., & Zheng, M. (2024) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/21676968241255978 · Cited by 4
“Contingencies of self-worth represent the domains in which individuals base their self-esteem (Crocker et al., 2003), and are regarded as important determinants of individuals ’ behaviors and well-being (e.g., Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Giving more or taking more? The dual effect of self-esteem on cooperative behavior in social dilemmas
Sun, Q., Huang, J., Jiang, C., Wu, B., & Yu, X. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104660 · Cited by 3
These Were the Days of Our Lives! A Self-Enhancement Model of Revisit Intention for Warfare Heritage Tourism
Scarpi, D., & Raggiotto, F. (2024) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/00472875241291552 · Cited by 4
“Psychology scholars suggest that self-growth drives individuals to repeat activities that enhance their self-worth (Crocker & Park, 2004).”
Identity, Collective Action and Inaction: The Role of Self‐Esteem and Psychological Benefits
Shultziner, D. (2025) · Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour · doi:10.1111/jtsb.12440 · Cited by 5
Leader–member exchange and emotional exhaustion in registered construction engineers: mediating role of active management by exception and moderating role of self-esteem
Feng, K., Wang, S., He, L., & Li, Y. (2025) · Engineering Construction & Architectural Management · doi:10.1108/ecam-08-2024-1122 · Cited by 6
Modèle théorique hypothétique du perfectionnisme des étudiants universitaires
Finn, K. (2017) · Revue de psychoéducation · doi:10.7202/1039159ar · Cited by 7

Authors: Crocker, J., & Park, L. E.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
ORCID: Crocker, Jennifer
Park, Lora E.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2004-05
Volume: 130
Issue: 3
Pages: 392-414
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392
OpenAlex: W2139936398
Semantic Scholar: 924706e15f8baf8a3f9cec05a301a422a2f47c1f
Cited by: 1,402
References: 305
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 72 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 73 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 62
FWCI: 5.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (1k02mh001747-01a1)
National Institute of Mental Health (K02 MH01747-01, R01 MH5886901)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, self-worth, learning, relatedness, autonomy, self-regulation, mental health, physical health
MeSH terms: Culture, Emotions, Goals, Humans, Internal-External Control, Interpersonal Relations, Motivation, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Social Perception, Time

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks